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Written by:

Dr. Muhammad Moiz Khan
Assistant Professor
Department of History
University of Karachi

REFORMERS

Shah Wali Ullah

Dr. M. Moiz Khan

Assistant Professor

Dept, of History, University of Karachi
0322-2391591, moiz200@yahoo.com

Shah Wali Ullah was born in 1703. He belonged to a family of religious preachers.
He was raised up in an environment where people use to have discourses on Quran,
shariah, Muslim morality and social values. His father was a religious scholar of repute.
Madrasa Rahimia was established by father of Shah Wali Ullah, Shah Abdur Rahim in
Delhi. This madrasa served the Muslims of Northern India. Shah Wali Ullah received
his early education from the same college. After graduating he started to teach over there.
He continued teaching till 1730 when he went to Saudi Arabia for further studies in
theology. There he spent more than a year. During his stay there he met Sheikh Abu
Tahir bin Ibrahim for whom he had great regard. He returned to sub-continent with a
vivid aim in his mind to serve the Muslims of sub-continent and Islam.

When he was just 4 years old in 1707 the last Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb
Alamgir died and the history of sub-continent took a new turn and the power and social
status of Muslims in sub-continent started to decline. Since his death the political decline
of Mughals and social decline of Muslims started and it is still declining. Shah Wali
Ullah experienced this decline as he grew up and was worried about it. Throughout his
life he wanted to revive Islam and the status of Muslims in the subcontinent he tried to
solve problems faced by Muslims systematically.

Weaknesses of Muslims of subcontinent, (realized by Shah Wali Ullah).

II.

III.

IV.

Muslims were not following Islam according to its true teaching because they
didn’t understand it properly.

Muslims were divided among themselves on the basis of different sects.

Muslims were indulging themselves in the luxuries of life.

Muslims were losing status and their rule in Subcontinent because of loss of

political power.

Dr. M. Moiz Khan

Assistant Professor

Dept, of History, University of Karachi
0322-2391591, moiz200@yahoo.com

His Efforts:-

Message:-

The first message Shah Wali Ullah spread amongst the Muslims was regarding
unity. He said that one of the major causes behind the decline of Muslims in subcontinent

Dr. M. Moiz Khan

Assistant Professor

Dept, of History, University of Karachi
0322-2391591, moiz200@yahoo.com

is the disintegration and disunity amongst them. He further stated that Shias are not
"Kafirs" and are Muslims. He said this division between them has weakened Muslims.
That is why other nations like Marathas are becoming stronger and overtaking Muslims.

Translation of Holy Quran: -

Shah Wali Ullah believed that Holy Quran was not understandable to all the
readers because of the language barrier. That is why he translated the Holy Quran into
Persian. Persian was understood and spoken by many Muslims at that time. He believed
that if Muslims can understand the message of Quran than it would be easy for them to
act upon it.

Different books:-

Shah Wali Ullah wrote many books throughout his life on religion. The main
purpose behind all the books was to make the teachings of Islam understandable to most
of the Muslims. His two most famous works are "Mat ul Akhfa" and "Hujratulah ul
Baligha". Hujratulah ul Baligha was the explanation of Holy Quran and Mat Ul Akhfa
was written on the principals of Quran and Islam.

Political efforts:-

Dr. M. Moiz Khan

Assistant Professor

Dept, of History, University of Karachi
0322-2391591, moiz200@yahoo.com

Although he was a religious scholar but he didn’t stop there. He wanted to remove
Marathas from the throne of Delhi. To overpower Marathas he requested Ahmed Shah
Abdali of Persia to invade India, defeat Marathas and restore Muslim rule in India.
Ahmed Shah Abdali came in 176land defeated Marathas in the famous battle field of
"Panipat" near Delhi. This battle is known as the third battle of Panipat. Ahmed Shah
Abdali although removed Marathas but did not stay in India so once again Delhi went
under the weak administration of Mughals.

His social principles:-

He propagated the principles of Adi and Tawazun, “Adi” means Justice and
'Tawazun" means equilibrium. He persuaded Muslims to practice these principal in their
daily lives to make their lives better. He believed that these two principles are the back
bone of any economy and through this Muslims can make their economic conditions
better.

Dr. M. Moiz Khan

Assistant Professor

Dept, of History, University of Karachi

Importance:- 0322-2391591, moiz200@yahoo.com

Shah Wali Ullah was one of the most important religious reformers of
Subcontinent. There are other reformers as well however Shah Wali Ullah is the most

prominent amongst them. He not only tried to bring Muslims closer to their religion but
he had a complete chalked out plan for the restoration of Muslim power in India. Another
distinction he has is that he propagated such ideals which were long lasting and
applicable at any time. For example unity of Muslims and proper understanding of Islam

by them.

Dr. M. Moiz Khan

Assistant Professor

Dept, of History, University of Karachi
0322-2391591, moiz200@yahoo.com

Syed Ahmed Shaheed Barelvi:

He was a very ambitious man who wanted to see Muslims of India in a better
position than they were. He was born in 1786 in Barely. He belonged to Hasni Syed
family. It is believed that he was distantly related to Shah Wali Ullah. In his early days
he wanted to become a religious scholar but he lacked the abilities required to become
one. His ambition brought him to Shah Abdul Aziz, son of Shah Wali Ullah. Shah Abdul
Aziz He guided him about his future and told him that if he really wanted to do
something for Muslims he should conduct Jihad for the Muslims where ever the Muslims
are in need and weak. Shah Abdul Aziz declared India “Darul Harb”, place of war or a
place where Muslims cannot live their lives according to the teachings of Islam. For this
purpose Syed Ahmed was not properly trained. He needed some to guide him in the art
of warfare and teach all that is need to plan and conduct attacks on the enemy and how
to survive when attacked. For this purpose Shah Abdul Aziz sent Syed Ahmed Shaheed
to Amir Khan a commander of Pathan army to get combat and military training.

In 1821 he went to offer Hajj and stayed there for 2 years and learnt religion. He
came back and made Jihad his ambition. He visited many areas of India to gather support.
He was able to collect some thousand volunteers to fight along him. He came back to
Punjab and challenged the authority of Sikh rulers. In early years of their struggle to free
the Muslims of Punjab they were successful and the movement became popular. Many
other Muslims who came to know about the movement came and joined Syed Ahmed
Shaheed. At one stage the Muslim army reached around 80000 fighters.

Reason for the failure of Jihad Movement:

1. Threat to local rulers:

The local Muslim rulers who supported the movement in its early days started to
feel uncomfortable. Their main fear was the presence of such a large army in their area.
This army had everything except an area to rule. Basically it was not meant to rule any
area the main reason for the formation of this army was to support suppressed Muslims
of Punjab. The rulers of N.W.F.P. thought that after dealing with Sikhs in Punjab they
might turn towards us and would take our rule as well. Out of this fear the local rulers
betrayed Syed Ahmed Shaheed Barelvi.

2. Unpopular in Muslims of Punjab:

The people who came to fight in Punjab came from different places in India. They
did not have any means of income. So to survive they started to tax the Muslims of
Punjab on behalf of their support. The Muslims who were already under so much
pressure were unable to pay this tax. This created frustration amongst the Muslims of
Punjab.

Dr. M. Moiz Khan

Assistant Professor

Dept, of History, University of Karachi
0322-2391591, moiz200@yahoo.com

3. Heterogeneous army:

The army of Syed Ahmed Shaheed was a volunteer army and these volunteers
came from many different parts f India. They belonged to different areas and races. They
had different styles of fighting on which they argued a lot. The only thing bonding them
together was the leadership of Syed Ahmed Shaheed. This difference among them
contributed towards their defeat.

Haji Sharyat Ullah:

He was a very devoted Muslim who wanted to serve Islam. He was worried about
the situation of Muslims of sub-continent and wanted to bring a change in their condition.
After some time he came up with the conclusion that Muslims have stop observing the
obligatory prayers like Namaz, Roza, Zakat etc.

He started Faraizi Movement with the believe that by offering all the obligatory prayers
Muslims would become better and closer to Islamic values.

The Advent of British:

Dr. M. Moiz Khan

Assistant Professor

Dept, of History, University of Karachi
0322-2391591, moiz200@yahoo.com

In 1600 C.E. East India Company was established in England. Queen Elizabeth
granted the charter to East India Company to trade in areas East of Africa. This included
Sub-continent, Indonesia, and Malaysia etc. In the start the East India Company tried
their luck in islands of Indonesia but they were unable to extract desirable profits from
there. To make trading more difficult they had a formidable opposition in the form of
Dutch. The Islands of Indonesia were already claimed by Dutch and Portuguese. In 1623
an incident permanently convinced British to turn towards India. Twenty one men were
killed by Dutch in Amboyna out of which ten were the servants of British East India
Company, the incident in known as Amboyna Massacre 1 .

The first British ship landed in India in 1608 at Calicut. This was the time period
of the fourth Mughal Emperor Jahangir. He did not allow British to trade in India.
However British did not lose hope and continued to convince Mughals for the
permission. Finally in 1612 a limited permission was granted to British by Khurram
(Shah Jahan) the governor of Gujarat. As a result British erected their first factory in
Surat. James I dispatched Sir Thomas Roe to the royal court of Jahangir in 1614.

The main reason of coming of British to India was trade of spices, cotton, jute,
rice etc. Secondly they also wanted markets for selling their products. The things which
were easily available in India had a high demand in Europe. The traders of Europe always
wanted to trade with India and they had come to India by land. However the route from
land took years to reach to India from Europe. It took more than two years for Marco
Polo to come to India. The major breakthrough in the travel to India was in 1496 when

1 In 1623 the Dutch governor, Herman Van, stationed there was suspicious about the presence and activities of
British. He believed that British are conspiring with Japanese to kill him. As preemptive measure he ordered the
killing of 10 British 10 Japanese and one Portuguese man. See, D. K. Bassett (1960). The “Amboyna Massacre”
of 1623. Journal of Southeast Asian History, 1, pp 1-19. http://doin0.1017/S0217781100000107.

Vasco de Gama of Portugal crossed the much feared Cape of Storms in the South of
Africa (later the same place was named as Cape of Good Hope).

Portuguese opened the sea route to India. They were first people who started to
trade with India from Europe. The next European people to follow them were Dutch.
England was the third European country to trade with India. Portuguese and Dutch
restricted themselves to small areas with in India. On the other hand British tried their
luck all over India and it paid off. Within 150 years of their stay in India British were
in such a strong position that they started to challenge the local rulers and even the
Mughal Emperors.

They challenged and defeated Siraj-ud-Daula the nawab of Bengal in 1757 in the
famous battle of Plassey.

Dr. M. Moiz Khan

Assistant Professor

Dept, of History, University of Karachi
0322-2391591, moiz200@yahoo.com

Different attempts by Indians to prevent British from
taking control over India:

Since British arrive in India they were trying to take control over India one way or
another. In the early days of their stay they were taking control over the economic
activity of India. Then after spending some decades they felt more comfortable and
strong enough to challenge the authority of Indians.

British challenged the authority of Aurangzeb on the issue of tax exemption.
However he was a powerful Mughal Emperor that is why he was able to crush British
easily in 1691.

Then British tried to take control of Bengal. In 1757 they challenged Nawab of
Bengal Siraj-ud-Dauala. The dispute was over the fortification of one factory of British.
Although the Nawab was able to defeat British in early battles but he was finally defeated
in the famous battle of Plassey. His minister Mir Jaffer betrayed him in the battle and
made the British victory possible.

In 1764 the Nawab of Bengal Mir Qasim, Nawab of Oudh Shuja-ud-Daula and
Mughal Emperor Shah Alam II fought with British at the battle of Buxar. British defeated
the alliance of these three rulers and took control of more lands in sub-continent.

Then Hyder Ali and Tipu Sultan were challenged by British in their territory,
Mysore. Hyder was able to defeat British and signed a treaty in which British agreed
not to disturb him again. His son Tipu was again challenged by British however he was
not able to overpower British despite early victories.

British also took over Sindh in 1843. The conquest of Sindh was a result of
frustration of British defeat in Afghanistan. They had been trying to capture Afghanistan
and successive British failures diverted their attention towards Sindh.

In Punjab Ranjeet Singh also did not accept the supremacy of British. British tried
to take control over Punjab but Ranjeet defended it well It was after his death, that
British annexed Punjab in 1849.

The last attempt by Indians to prevent British from taking control over India was

the War independence 1857. This was the biggest struggle against British in India. It was
supported by many Indians from different parts.

In short all the efforts by Indians to resist against British control failed. The main
reason behind these failures was that Indians were not united at any time and had their
own personal interest.

MUGHALS

i. Babur

ii. Humayun

iii. Akbar

iv. Jahangir

v. Shah Jahan

vi. Aurangzeb

1526-30

1530-40 & 1555-56

1556-1605

1605-27

1628-58

1658-1707

Mughal dynasty in India started from Babur in 1526, when he defeated the last
ruler of Lodi dynasty Ibrahim Lodhi in the first battle of Panipat. Although Mughal
dynasty officially lasted till 1858, the first six rulers were worth discussing. After the
death of Aurangzeb in 1707 the Mughal dynasty lost its grip over India.

DECLINE OF MUGHALS

Dr. M. Moiz Khan

Assistant Professor

Dept, of History, University of Karachi
0322-2391591, moiz200@yahoo.com

The dynasty, which was started by Babur in 1526 in India, was one of the greatest
dynasties in the history of the world. We do not find many kings or emperors who can
match the glory and might of Mughal Emperors.

Aurangzeb was the sixth and the last strong ruler of Mughal dynasty who
controlled his territories with authority. After the death of Aurangzeb in 1707 the Mughal
Empire started to decline and never recovered. Finally in 1858 the Mughal rule was
officially ended by British. There are several factors, which resulted in the decline of
the Mughal dynasty, which are as under:

i. Wars of Aurangzeb:

Aurangzeb was a very ambitious ruler. He wanted to capture whole of India
especially southern states. These south Indian states were very strong and had defended
themselves against Akbar, Jahangir and Shah Jahan. On the other hand he was trying to
control Afghanistan and Persia. Other than wars of annexations he was also faced by
many rebellions. He invested almost all of the treasures of Mughal dynasty into his wars.
At the end of his reign Mughal treasury was exhausted and the successors of Aurangzeb
did not have sufficient money to control the vast Empire of India.

ii. Incapable successors of Aurangzeb:

Aurangzeb did not train his sons as his father had trained him and his brothers.
His sons were weak and were unable to stamp their authority over all the lands, which
were ruled by Aurangzeb. Governors of different provinces started to declare
themselves, independent of Mughal rule. Rebellions started immediately after the death
of Aurangzeb and these weak successors were unable to crush them.

Dr. M. Moiz Khan

Assistant Professor

Dept, of History, University of Karachi

iii. Rise of Marathas: 0322 - 2391591 , moiz 200 @yahoo.com

Marathas were Hindus of South India. Marathas started to hate Aurangzeb due to
his anti-Hindu policies. Shivajee was one of the noble amongst them and he united them
on the basis of nationalism. He said to get rid of Aurangzeb the Marathas need to raise
arms against him. They although started their struggle in the reign of Aurangzeb but he
was successful in crushing them. Shivajee was very powerful and a good general. He
fought many battles with Aurangzeb however he was finally killed by the Mughal armies
and Aurangzeb was able to control the Maratha rebellion. After the death of Aurangzeb
Marathas rose again this time there was no one on the Mughal throne to stop them. They
grew stronger and finally took Delhi from Mughal.

vi. Rise of British in Sub-continent:

British East India Company was established in 1600. It was given a charter to
trade in East of Africa by Queen Elizabeth. British took a long time to establish
themselves in India. British were more advanced than Indians in every field. They had
experience of external diplomacy due to their interaction with other nations of Europe.
British after spending a century in India realized that they can control the politics of India
for their own favor. Since the start of the 18th century British had started to interfere in
the local politics of India. By mid-18th century British got control of Bengal. Then they
expanded their circle of influence. British finally took the power from the hands of
Mughals officially in 1858.

War of Independence:

Different aspects to be covered in this topic;

Dr. M. Moiz Khan

Assistant Professor

Dept, of History, University of Karachi
0322-2391591, moiz200@yahoo.com

1. Why this war was started? (causes)

2. Why did Indians lose this war? (causes of failure)

3. In what aspects this war was a failure? (comments)

4. What did Indians gain from this war? (comments)

Till 1858 a Company based in England controlled India. This company had started
to influence the politics of India, since the start of 18th century. They molded every
aspect of the lives of Indian people for their own benefits. East India Company made
huge profits from India without giving any thing back to its people.

Dr. M. Moiz Khan

Assistant Professor

Dept, of History, University of Karachi
0322-2391591, moiz200@yahoo.com

1. Causes:

i. Economic Causes:

British started to take administrative control over India since the battle of Plassey
in 1757. The main objectives of this take over was extracting maximum profits out of
India. India provided multiple exploitation opportunities to British.

i) It provided raw material for the newly started Industrial Revolution in England 2 .

ii) Mass production means need for larger market, India provided single largest

market in the world.

iii) For extraction of raw material British pressurized the local rulers for tax

exemptions and later completely waived the taxes for their trade.

iv) They also made tax exemption for selling their products in the local markets.

As a result the local rulers and merchants started to suffer. When mass produced

products were pumped into Indian markets the prices decreased and the local manual
production failed to cope up with the change. Contrary to the British local merchants
were paying all the taxes in their own land according to the various laws prevailing in
different kingdoms with India. This disparity lead to the frustration in the hearts and
minds of locals.

ii. Political Causes:

For the first century of their stay in India British did not indulge themselves into
local politics. Then from the start of 18th century we see British influence over local
politics. The first major ruler to lose his land was Siraj-ud-Daula 1757. Then Nawab of
Oudh also lost his hegemony over his land 1764. British accelerated the capture of power
and land of India from the start of 19th century.

During 1782 till 1799 British fought in Mysore. The Nawab of Mysore Tipu Sultan
put up a great effort to resist British with the help of French however despite his several
victories over British he was finally defeated by them. Mir Sadiq was the traitor who
betrayed his benefactor and conspired against his countrymen.

The conquest of Sindh took place in 1843. On September 11, 1803 British attacked
Delhi, which was under Marratha rule and three days later they took the charge of it.
British conquest of the capital of northern India was a significant one. After it they were
able to dominate all India psychologically and stamped their authority. Eater in Punjab
British tried to expand, however their aims were checked by Maharaja Ranjeet Singh until
his death in 1839. They took capital of Punjab, Fahore in 1849.

The famous Doctrine of Fapse in 1852 of Dalhousie also deprived many rulers
from their lands. According to this doctrine the British would confiscate any land of
such rulers, who did not have a direct male heir, after his death. Through the
implementation of this doctrine British were able to take control many territories which

2 Industrial Revolution started in England in 1750 when first steam powered machine ‘Spinning Jenny’ was
invented for textile industry. Mechanization meant mass production and more raw material for production
needs.

resulted into further hatred in the hearts of locals for them. Most of them were unable
to fight British alone however when the war started they came out in the support for the
anti-British forces and tried to take revenge.

hi .Social causes:

India was home to very staunch and conservative people. British in early days of
their occupation did not interfere in the social traditions and customs of Indian people.
From the beginning of 19 th century British started to introduce many new reforms, which
were seen as attack by the local people on their culture. They opened schools where
English was made compulsory. English replaced Persian in 1835 as official language.
Lord McCauley introduced his famous education policy of 1835, which particularly
attacked local teachings and culture. He even made an insulting statement about the local
literature,” a single shelf of a European Library is better than all the books ever written in
Sub-continent. Dr. Moiz Khan

Assistant Professor

Dept, of History, University of Karachi

IV. Religious causes: 0322-2391591.moiz200@yahoo.com

India had always been a very conservative society. The two major communities
Muslims and Hindus both had always been very orthodox towards their religious
believes. Earlier the British East India Company decided upon the policy of no
interference in the religious matter of the locals. They were aware of the fact that by
indulging in religion or propagating Christianity they would rattle the locals. However
with time policies changed.

i) Afghan Invasion by East India Company was an event that created a rift
between the Hindu soldiers working under the company. Bengal and Bombay
regiments were ordered to March into Afghanistan in 1839. Several Hindu
soldiers refused to go beyond river Indus on behalf of their religious believe.
According to Hindu traditions if a Hindu crosses river Indus and goes west he
will lose their religion. This was a major concern for British and Hindus at the
time.

ii) Missionary activities were started by the order the British crown in the first
quarter of 19 th century. It created a feeling of insecurities in the hearts and minds
of both Muslims and Hindus.

iii) British introduced a cartridge for a new riffle in India. The cartridge was
made of paper and was coated with animal fat to protect it from moisture. These
cartridges were to be opened by mouth before use. The cartridges were being
made locally in India by various venders. The manufacturers used cow and pig
fat on them. It was later reported by the Indian Sepoyees that we would not use
these cartridges because of caw and pig fat. In the beginning British called an
inquiry into the matter and ordered vendors not use the fat of said animals. Later
in May 1857 the matters got worst when a British officer strictly ordered Indian
Sepoyees to use the cartridges when they were in doubt about the use of cow and
pig fat on them.

iv) Ban on Suttee 3 was imposed by British in 1829. At the time this ban was
considered as unnecessary indulgence by British in the affairs and religious
matters of locals.

2. Reasons for the failure of Indians in the War:

This was not the first time that Indians took up arms against East India Company.
Siraj-ud-Daula, Shuja-ud-Daula, Haider Ali, Tipu Sultan and Ranjeet Singh also took
up arms against East India Company but in 1857 this effort was collective rather than
individual. India was one of the largest countries at that time which had one of the
largest populations in the world. Then how such a great number of people were defeated
by handful British officers? There are some reasons behind this defeat, which are as
under:

i. No central leadership:

The war of independence was started by some soldiers who refused to use the
disputed cartridge. Although these sepoyees got support from other Indians as well but
there was a major weakness in the organization of the rebel army. There was no leader
who could command the volunteer army and fight the war with proper strategy. The
sepoyees got the official support of Bahadur Shah Zafar, but he was a very old man at that
time and was physically unable to take active part in the war. On the other hand British
had a proper high command and proper structured army. Due to this lack of central
leadership the rebel army was unable to achieve its objective.

Dr. M. Moiz Khan

Assistant Professor

Dept, of History, University of Karachi

ii. Lack of Weapons: 0322-2391591.moiz200@yahoo.com

The war is fought with weapons. The British had their factories which were
supplying weapons continuously. On the other hand the local people were fighting with
the weapons which they got from British. The other weapons which were locally made,
(swords, lances, bow and arrow) were useless against the advanced weapons of British
like guns and cannons.

iii. Lack of support from all over India:

This war is remembered as the war of Independence of India but in reality it was
not supported by all the Indians. Main fighting tribes like Punjabis and Ghurkhas were
supporting British. The three presidencies Calcutta, Madras and Bombay remained loyal
to the British. The war effort was concentrated only in the central India. The people of

3 Suttee was a religious ceremony of Hindus in which if the husband dies the widows used to be burned along
with the dead body of the deceased husband. Although this practice was not very wide spread amongst all
Hindus however at the time of British ban considerable section of Hindu community was distressed by the
action.

other parts of India did not support the war.

iv. Lack of unity and coordination:

The people who were fighting against British were not united among themselves
as well. They were fighting for their own goals rather than the national goal. That is
why they did not have coordination with each other. Different rulers were fighting in
different areas for example, Nana Sahib at Kanpur, Begum Hazrat Mahal at Oudh, Moulvi
Liaquat Ali at Allahabad and most famous Rani Laxmi Bai at Jhansi. If all these people
would have been fighting like a single machine and with coordination the results of the
war would have been different.

Comments :

3 This war was a failure because it was unable to achieve the goals for which it was
fought. The objectives of the war were;

i. To send British back to England

ii. To unite Indians against British

iii. To reinstall Mughal rule in India.

4 The people who fought this war were unable to achieve any of these goals
through the war. Although the war was unable to achieve the goals for which it was
fought but it achieved some in direct goals which were not considered as success at that
time. This indirect success proved very helpful for Indians to gain Independence 90
years later.

i. The people of India were able to abolish the tyrannical rule of British East India
Company and to replace it with comparatively better rule of British Crown. The
company was only working to gain profit for its people. They totally ignored the
rights of the Indian people. They were the main cause of the armed struggle against
British in India.

ii. The people of India convinced the British Government that they need recognition
and now their voice cannot be pressed. That is why the Government of England
took control of India directly into their hands and introduced acts which gave
Indians a chance to participate in the Government.

Dr. M. Moiz Khan

Assistant Professor

Dept, of History, University of Karachi
0322-2391591, moiz200@yahoo.com

Phases of Indo-Pak history from 1857 till 1947:

The history of India after the War of Independence till Independence of Sub-
Continent could be divided into four phases, which are as under:

First Phase 1858 till 1905 (Hindus + British vs. Muslims)

This period is marked by good relations between Hindus and British. Muslims
were being ignored by both of them and persecuted.

Second Phase 1905 till 1913 (British + Muslims vs. Hindus)

During this period British made some administrative and legislative changes which
favored Muslims. Hindus during this period were very active against both British and
Muslims.

Third Phase 1913 till 1928 (Muslims + Hindus vs. British)

Since the change of objectives by Muslim League the Congress found some
common grounds with them. This period is marked by Hindu Muslim Unity shown in
Lucknow Pact, Khilafat movement etc.

Fourth Phase 1928 till 1947 (British vs. Muslim vs. Hindus)

Since the Nehru Report the unity between Hindu and Muslims ended. Since then
both parties worked for their own rights without the help of each other.

Dr. M. Moiz Khan

Assistant Professor

Dept, of History, University of Karachi
0322-2391591, moiz200@yahoo.com

First Phase 1858 till 1905
(Hindus + British Vs Muslims)

Introduction:

The Great War had started in May 1857 and it ended in August 1858. The two
simultaneous and most significant aftermaths of the war were the dissolution of British
East India Company and the takeover of all Indian affairs by the British government under
royal authority of her highness Queen Victoria. On 1 st November 1858 the queen declared
the takeover officially. For the first time during the British interaction with Indians were
given the status of British subject unlike the rule under the company. This might not be a

status any one would like to associate themselves with however it was a lesser evil. The

queen announced constitutional reforms in the new official colony. Act of India 1858 was

the result that intention.

Act of India 1858:

Dr. M. Moiz Khan

Assistant Professor

Dept, of History, University of Karachi
0322-2391591, moiz200@yahoo.com

1. “India was to be governed directly by and in the name of the Crown, actin through a
Secretary of State.” 4

“There shall be paid to each member of the ' Council the yearly salary of one thousand
two hundred pounds out of the revenues, of India.” 5

“If a majority of the Council record as aforesaid their opinions against any act proposed
to be done the Secretary of State shall, if he do not defer to the opinions of the majority,
record his reasons for acting in opposition thereto.” 6

Sir Sved Ahmed Khan: (1817-1898)

Introduction:

Sir Syed Ahmed Khan is one of those personalities who shape the future of
nations. Sir Syed Ahmed Khan was born on 17 th October 1817 and he died on 27 th March
1898. He belonged to an educated family and his father had served in the Mughal court.
After completing education he looked for his future in judiciary during the rule of East
India Company.

4 95

5 Indian Constitutional Documents 12

6 Ibid 15

He was a realistic person and a man of reason. He saved the life of an English
collector Shakespeare and his family from an angry mob. He was the first person who
took a middle path and tried to solve the problems Muslims were facing at the time
especially after the war. At the time of the war he was 40 years old and he dedicated
rest of his life towards the restoration of the status of Muslim society in sub-continent.

Contributions and services of Sir Syed:

After the war Sir planned to raise the status of Muslim society by education and
bringing them close to British. To accomplish this task he wrote books on various topics
and opened schools and other institutions.

i. Asbab-e-Baghawat-e-Hind; (The causes of Indian Revolt). 1858 (Political effort):

It was originally written in Urdu and later it was translated into English by
Sir Auckland Colvin and G.F.I. Graham in 1873 and published same year 7 . In this
pamphlet he blamed the war on British. He said that it is due to the tyrannical rule of
British East India Company that Indians started to hate them and finally this hatred led to
the war. He pointed out that British did not include Indians in the government. He argued
that British should include Indians in the government. This will help British to
understand and solve the problems faced by Indians. This particular piece to writing had
a great impact on politics of India, British for the first time included Indians in the
government after the Indian Councils act 1861. These Indian members were chosen by
the Viceroy this means they were not elected or they had the approval of Indian people.

ii. Loyal Mohammedans of India. 1858 (Political effort):

In this book Sir Syed mentioned all those Muslims who served under the
British. The main purpose of this book was to tell British that Muslims are not their
enemies and they have served them with loyalty.

in. Tabyin-ul-Kalam (Explanation of Bible) (Social effort):

In this book Sir Syed explained Bible to bring out its relation with Quran and
Islam. It was a very important book to cultivate friendly relations between Muslims and
British.

iv. Tahzeeb-ul-Akhlaq. (Magazine) (Social efort)

It was a magazine started by Sir Syed to bring Muslims closer to their culture and
moral values. It worked as a social reformer.

Literary works.

Dr. M. Moiz Khan

Assistant Professor

Dept, of History, University of Karachi
0322-2391591, moiz200@yahoo.com

7 G.F.I. Graham, The Life and Word of Sir Syed Ahmed Khan, (London: William Blackwood & Sons, 1885), 32

v. Ahleam-e-Taam-e-Ahle-e-Kitab (Social efort) (Table manners of the people of book)
Both Muslims and Christians are the people of book. Muslims follow
Quran and Christians follow Bible. In this writing Sir Syed tried to bring out the
similarities between Muslims and Christian.

vi. Khutabt-e-Ahmadiah (A book on the life of Holy Prophet Mohammad P.B.U.H) In
this book Sir Syed discussed different events and summons of Holy Prophet.

vii. Tafseer-ul-Quran. (Commentary of Holy

Quran) It was a detailed commentary on Holy
Quran.

Educational institutes:

Dr. M. Moiz Khan

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i. Laid the foundations of a school at Moradabad in 1859.

ii. Established a school in Ghazipur in 1864.

iii. Established a scientific society at Ghazipur in 1863. The main function of this
society was to translate books written in European languages into local
languages so the people of India could understand them.

iv. In 1869 he went to England to admit his son Mohammad in Cambridge
University. There he observed the education system and particularly universities.
He observed that Universities like Oxford and Cambridge are working for more
than three centuries due to which the society of England was modern and
advanced.

After coming back from England he started to work towards establishing a
university in India. In 1875 he was able to establish a school at Aligarh, which
was upgraded to MAO College in 1877. This same college was finally made a
university in 1920 as Aligarh Muslim University.

v. He also established Mohammedans Educational conference in 1886 to promote
education amongst Muslims of Sub-continent.

Aligarh Movement:

It was not a separate movement launched by Sir Syed Ahmed Khan. All of his
educational efforts which had their base in Aligarh came to be known as Aligarh
Movement which included the Tehzeb-ul- Akhlaq, MAO. College etc.

Political efforts:

Sir Syed tried to transform Muslim society of sub-continent to be a modern
society. For this purpose he made many different efforts. Along with his social,
educational and religious efforts his political mentoring of Muslims is very important.

i. Different books:

Dr. M. Moiz Khan

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Dept, of History, University of Karachi

ii. Two nation theory: 0322 - 2391591 , moiz 200 @yahoo.com

Sir Syed was the first person who distinguished the two major communities of
sub-continent on the political and religious basis. He had a very fine observation on the
political events of his times. In 1867 Hindi Urdu controversy occurred. The course of this
event got Sir Syed’s attention and he started to think about the two nation theory at that
time.

British introduced Indian Councils Act 1892 in which they introduced for the first
time in India the system of elections. It means that now the Indian people can chose their
representatives on their own.

iii. Political Advice to Muslims:

When Indian National Congress was established in 1885 Sir Syed advised
Muslims of sub-continent to stay away from the politics. The reason behind it was that he
believed that Muslims are not properly aware of politics at that time and not properly
educated to become got politicians.

On the other hand Hindus were in better position than Muslims. That is why he
asked Muslims to work towards education and when they are prepared then enter into
politics.

Akbar Allahabadi

“Hum raish dikhatay hain kay Islam ko dekho
Miss zulf dikhati hain kay iss Laam ko dekho”

Dr. M. Moiz Khan

“Iss ada say kaha miss nay come on Assistant Professor

.. . ... Dept, of History, University of Karachi

Teer ki si abb mujh mam rawam si hai 0322-2391591, moiz200@yahoo.com

“hum aisi kul kitabain kabil e Zabti samajhtay hain
Jinhain parh kar kay larkay baap ko khapti samajhtay hain

Char din ki zindagi hai kouft say kia faida
Kar Clerky kha double roti khuishi say phul ja

Huay is qadr muhazib kabhi ghar ka munh na dekha
Kati umar hotlon main maray aspatal jakar

Sheikh ji kay donon betay ba hunar paida huay
Aik hain khufiya police main aik phansi pagaiy

Indian Councils Act 1861:

In 1861 British introduced first major reforms. These reforms were the result of

continuous criticism from Indians on the administration and legislative structure of
British in India. There was no representation of Indians in the legislative council of
Viceroy and central administration. According to Indian critics the absence of Indians
is a major cause of rejection of British and one of the major elements for the war of
1857. Leading from the front in criticism was Sir Syed Ahmed Khan. He wrote Asbab-
e-Baghawat-e-Hind (Causes of Indian Revolt, later translated in English) in 1858. Since
this book came out, British started to discuss inclusion of Indians in governmental setup.

These reforms for the first time brought Indians into legislature. It said that
Indians would be allowed to sit in the council of Viceroy on the basis of selection by
British. Although this inclusion was not on democratic basis but it opened a window of
opportunity for Indians to take part in law making. The function of Indian member was
just to tell British about the feelings of Indians when asked. He did not have any power
to make any change or to stop any law.

The first Indians to become members of Imperial Legislative Council were, Raja
Sir Deo Narayan Singh of Benaras (Jan 1862-1866) Narendra Singh, Maharaja of Patiala
(Jan 1862-1864) Dinkar Rao (Jan 1862-1864).

Hindi-Urdu controversy 1867:

This event occurred when British decided to replace Urdu which is written in
Persian script with Hindi written in Deo-Nagri script, in lower courts. Muslims all over
India started to agitate against the step taken by the Government. On the other hand
Hindus were celebrating on the replacement of the Language.

This event also sparked disturbance in many localities across India. Muslims
were surprised by the reaction shown by the Hindus, because till then both Hindus and
Muslims stood with each other against British. Hindus had started to lean towards British,
while Muslims were facing hardships at the hands of British.

Sir Syed Ahmed Khan took notice of the event and observed it. He then started
to think about the two nation theory, that Muslims and Hindus are two different nations
which have totally different history, culture, religion and language etc. Although they
have lived together with each other for more than eight centuries but still they have not
learnt to tolerate each other. After some interval of time in history both communities
found themselves face to face against each other over some issue.

Formation of “All Indian National Congress” 1885:

It was formed by a retired British civil servant Allan Octavian Hume in 1885. The
main purpose of this party was to provide Indians a platform to voice their grievances and
demands to the British Government. It welcomed people of all castes and color. British
wanted to avoid any other confrontation like the War of Independence 1857 in future.
The first meeting of the Congress was held in Bombay when Lord Dufferin was viceroy.
It was attended by 72 delegates. Womesh Chandra Banerjee was elected as the first
president of Congress. By 1907 the Congress party got split into two sections first under
Bal Gangadhar Tilak (the extremist) and the second under Gopal Krishna Ghokle (the

Dr. M. Moiz Khan

Assistant Professor

Dept, of History, University of Karachi
0322-2391591, moiz200@yahoo.com

moderates).

Sir Syed Ahmed Khan at this moment advised Muslims not to join Congress. He
was not against politics but he believed that Muslims were not fully prepared to indulge
themselves into politics. He believed that Muslims at that time had other important than
politics challenges which need immediate attention. He said that Hindus are more
advanced and educated than Muslims. They will easily overpower Muslims in politics.
He also predicted that Congress will become a Hindu party neglecting Muslims.

To provide Muslims a platform to work on education and divert their attention
from politics he established Mohammedan Education Conference in 1886. Time proved
the fears and predictions of Sir Syed when Hindus objected on the partition of Bengal
in 1905 which was in the favor of Muslims.

Indian Councils Act 1892:

Since its establishment Congress was asking for more representation in the
legislature and on the basis of elections by Indians rather than selection by British. In
1892 British introduced new reforms in which for the first time they brought limited
democratic representation system in India. This time the number of Indians in provincial
council was increased and they were going to be nominated from Indian.

This was not a direct election amongst the people like in practice today across the
world but these members would be nominated by different groups or bodies working in
India for example, City Corporation, Municipal Corporation, district boards,
associations of merchants or manufacturers and University senate (source given below).
The power to make regulations regarding the nominations of Indians was given to
provincial governors under the article 1(4) of the Indian Councils Act 1892. 8

At the time there were four administrative units of British India, Madras,
Bombay, Calcutta and North Western Provinces and Oudh. The number of nominated
members in these provinces was as follows;

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Province

No.

Madras

Bombay

Calcutta

N.W. Provinces and Oudh

Dr. M. Moiz Khan

Assistant Professor

Dept, of History, University of Karachi
0322-2391591, moiz200@yahoo.com

He said that the European democratic system cannot work in India as it is working
in England because there are many different communities living in India. This way only
the community in majority would be able to make laws and they would suppress the
communities in minorities. On the other hand in England all the people are English and
they do not have communal differences amongst them. They vote on the basis of policies

See, The Indian Councils Act, and the Acts Amending it, (Madras: The National Press, 1893), 1-2

of political parties or politicians. In India all people would vote on the basis of religion
or community.

Original Source 9

Regulations under Section 1 (4) of the Indian Councils Act 1892 for Madras.

I- Of the persons, other than the Advocate-General of officer acting in the that capacity, to be nominated
Additional Members of Council by the Governor of Madras for his assistance in making Laws and
Regulations not more than nine shall be officials.

II- The nominations to seven seats shall be made by the Governor on the recommendation of the following
bodies and associations respectively, namely:-

A- The Corporation of Madras.

B- Such Municipal Corporations or group or groups of Municipal Corporations other than the
Corporation of Madras as the Governor in Council may from time to time prescribe by
Notification in the Fort St, George Gazette.

C- Such District Boards, or group or groups of District Boards, as the Governor in Council may
from time to time prescribe aforesaid;

D- Such Association or Associations of merchants, manufacturers as the Governor in Council may
from time to time prescribe aforesaid;

E- The Senate of the University of Madras:

Provided that the bodies described above under A, B, C and E, shall each (except as hereinafter
provided rule VII) have at least one person nominated upon its recommendation, and A, D and E,
not more than one each.

Dr. M. Moiz Khan

Assistant Professor

Dept, of History, University of Karachi
0322-2391591, moiz200@yahoo.com

9 The Indian Councils Act, and the Acts Amending it, (Madras: The National Press, 1893), 58-59

Second Phaw 1905_ till 1911_
(British ± Muslims Vs Hindus)

Partition of Bengal 1905:

Dr. M. Moiz Khan

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Bengal at the start of the twentieth century had Bengal proper, Biharm Orrisa and
Cholta Nagpur. It was the most populous Province in British India, having an area of
189,900 square miles, with a population of 78.5 million (7 carore 85 lacs) 10 . This was
nt the first time that British had discussed or planned to bifurcate this particular area of
India. The size of Bengal according to British was too much for a single governor to
handle and administer. They divided Bengal into two provinces, East Bengal and West
Bengal. Before the partition the most of the Muslims lived in the Eastern Bengal and
Hindus dominated the Western Bengal. Partition took effect on 16 th October, 1905. After
the partition Muslims got almost full majority in the new province East Bengal.

This partition sparked a reaction from Hindus, who were not in the favor of
sharing power with Muslims and agreeing to any favors for Muslims. Prior to the
partition in all provinces Hindus had majority and Muslims were in minority, so when
the Muslims got majority in one province it was not acceptable to Hindus.

On the other hand Muslims felt relieve. This was the first time during the British
Raj 11 that Muslims as a community received some benefit out of the government. They
welcome the decision. The main advantage to Muslims was that now they did not have
to compete with the Hindus of Calcutta who were head and shoulder above the Muslim
merchants economically and had a control over markets.

1 Why the partition was done?

2 Why Hindus did not like it? And, Why Muslims welcomed it?

3 How Hindus and Congress opposed it? or Why the partition was reversed?

1 Why the partition was done?

Bengal was the largest province of India which had the largest population and area.
Due to its size and population it was becoming difficult to administer it. So administer it
properly the Viceroy decided to divide into two smaller provinces under two Governors.
The population was about 70 million.

Dr. M. Moiz Khan

Assistant Professor

Dept, of History, University of Karachi
0322-2391591, moiz200@yahoo.com

10 R. C. Majumdar, History of the Freedom Movement in India, Vol.II, ( Calcutta: Firrna K L M Pvt. Ltd, 1963),
3

11 British Raj means the rule from 1858 till 1947. It does not include rule by East India Company.

Another political reason can be drawn out of the activities of Congress and behavior
of British Government. Since the establishment of Congress in 1885 the demands of
Indians were increasing day by day. Congress was dominated by Hindus and Muslims
had a very small number in it. British wanted support for them amongst Indians and they
thought that by giving political, administrative and economic favor to Muslims they
might be able to receive support from Muslims, which might be helpful against Congress.
This is exactly what happened after the partition. Muslims were in favor of it and Hindus
rejected it completely.

2 Why Hindus did not like it? And, Why Muslims welcomed it?

Before the partition the Hindus were in majority. Hindus had more than half of
the population in Bengal, most which was located in the Western part of the province.
The Muslims had the second largest population and most of them were located in the
Eastern part.

After the partition East part of Bengal became under the majority of the Muslims
and the Western part was still dominated by the Hindus. Congress and Hindus were
unable to tolerate Muslim majority in any of the provinces of India. Secondly Hindus
were claiming that by drawing lines on the holy land of Hindus British have committed a
sin and dividing any piece of land on India is like cutting holy deity 12 in two halves.

For Muslims, it was a sigh of relief. Finally the mission of Sir Syed was
accomplished to some extent. He always wanted to bring Muslims and British closer for
the benefit of Muslims. It was the first time after the War of Independence 1857 that
Muslim community got any benefit out of the British Government. Muslims were
enjoying majority in one newly created province in India.

3 How Hindus and Congress opposed it? Or Why the partition was

reversed?

Congress and Hindus were against this decision since the beginning. They wanted
to reverse it at any cost. The following events and a ction show how they were able to
pressurize British to reverse the partition. Dr. M. Moiz Khan

Assistant Professor

Dept, of History, University of Karachi

i Sawadeshi movement: 0322 - 2391591 , moiz200@yahoo.com

“Sawadeshi” is a Hindi word which literally means “of our own”. In this movement
Congress asked their fellow countrymen to boycott British goods and buy only Indians
goods. They thought this way British would suffer financial losses and they would be
forced to reverse the partition.

ii. Violence across country:

Initially British were able to sustain pressure of agitation and Sawadeshi
12 Hindus consider India a holy land and they compared partition of Bengal with slaughtering of Holy cow.

Dr. M. Moiz Khan

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Dept, of History, University of Karachi
0322-2391591, moiz200@yahoo.com

Movement. But after some time Hindus got more frustrated and violent in their demand.
Some extremist Hindus started to conduct attacks on government officials. They even
attempted to assassinate the Viceroy of India Lord Minto twice, but he survived both
times.

iii. Delhi Durbar:

King George V became king of England on 6 th May 1910 after the death of his father.
He chose India for his coronation ceremony because it was the most prized possession of
the British monarchy. When Indians came to know about this Idea of the king they
threaten to kill the king if he tries to come to India. Before this could happen the British
Government took firm action to avoid this situation by reversing the partition and shifting
the capital from Calcutta to Delhi.

Sir John Jenkins a member of Viceroy’s Council advised to reverse the partition
of Bengal and to shift the capital of India to Delhi. Both of these suggestions were
accepted by Viceroy and implemented. When King came to India the capital was Delhi
and there he announced the reversal of the Partition of Bengal on 22 nd June 1911.

Simla deputation, 1906

After the partition of Bengal the Muslims of Sub-continent felt alone. The
reaction of Hindus against the partition was very strong and anti-Muslim. At that time
some prominent members of Muslim community thought that the time has arrived for
Muslims to take some action towards safeguarding their rights. Therefore Sir Agha
Khan III led a delegation of some prominent members of Muslim society of India to
meet Viceroy Lord Minto in Simla in October 1906.

There they demanded separate electorates for Muslims and weightage for
Muslims in different councils. The meeting was a success and brought future hopes
for Muslim politics in India. The Viceroy assured that he would convey the demands
to House of Commons. Separate electorates were finally granted to Muslims in Minto

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The Formation of Muslim League 1906:

The political system and culture was introduced in India by British in the last
quarter of nineteenth century. In 1885 the formation of Congress started the process of
politics in India. At that time Sir Syed Ahmad Khan advised Muslims not to take part in
Congress. The reason was that Muslims were not aware of politics at that time.

Muslims were ignored time and again by the British and Hindus in the India. The
Indian Councils Act of India 1891 also proved that Hindus would dominate the politics
and will leave Muslims behind. Since the start of 20 th century Muslims had started to feel
the need of a separate political party or a group. In 1901, in a meeting at Lucknow,
Nawab Viqar-ul-Mulk stressed on the formation of a political party for Muslims of India.

The Hindu attitude towards Muslims after the Partition of Bengal proved that
Hindus cannot work for the rights of Muslims and Muslims need to make a political party
of their own. The annual session of the, “Mohammedan Educational Conference”, was
held at Dhaka in 1906. Many prominent members of Muslim society of India were
present there. After the meeting the Nawab of Dhaka, Nawab Viqar-ul-Mulk arranged
another meeting to discuss the prospects of a political party of Muslims. He chaired the
meeting and in this meeting the every agreed on the need to form a separate political
party. The early objectives of the League were,

i. To protect the rights of Muslims

ii. To cultivate friendly relations with British.

iii. To prevent the rise a hostile feelings in the hearts of Muslims for other
communities and in the hearts of other communities for Muslims.

The formation of Muslim League was inevitable due to the behavior of Hindus
and Congress. After its formation Congress blamed the League as the representative of
British and said that British have made Muslim League to divide Indians and to counter

Congress.

Morley Minto Reforms 1909:

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British introduced legislative reforms after 1892 in 1909. These reforms are
known as Indian Councils act 1909 or Morley Minto reforms. Lord Minto was Viceroy
and Lord Morley was the Secretary of State for India. Salient features of these reforms
are as under;

i. The separate electorates were given to Muslims in the provinces where they were

in minority.

ii. The number of seats in the provincial councils was increased as 30 in small

provinces and 50 in large province.

iii. The number of central council was increased to be 60 members.

These reforms were very important for Muslims in two aspects, i. Firstly in it the
Separate Electorates were officially granted to Muslims which meant a great Victory for
early Muslim politics, ii. Secondly the partition of Bengal was not reversed in these
reforms which meant that British kept their promise. These reforms were not meant to
give Indians a chance to rule themselves but on the contrary to give them the opportunity
to convey their issues or problems to British. The Indian members of the councils were
not there to make any significant changes in the laws or frame them. They were there to
advice British and it depended on them to accommodate those advices or to reject them.
British could easily ignore their advice.

On the other hand Congress was very unhappy with these reforms. They also
refused to accept these reforms for the following three reasons:

i. It did not grant self- rule to Indians which was the demand of Congress before
these reforms.

ii. Secondly separate electorates were given to Muslims in minority provinces and
Congress was against this demand of Muslims.

iii. Thirdly the partition of Bengal was not reversed in these reforms. Congress was
agitating against the partition of Bengal since it was done in 1905 and they were
expecting that British government would officially reverse this partition in these
reforms.

Third Phase 1911 till 1928
(Hindus±MusUms Vs British )

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0322-2391591, moiz200@yahoo.com

Change of Objectives by Muslim League:

After the reversal of partition of Bengal in 1911 during Delhi Darbar, the
leadership of Muslim League was shocked and felt betrayed by British. During the
movement against the partition Muslims were curious about the future of East Bengal (a
Muslim majority area) and they were satisfied by British that it will remain separated no
matter how many tactics would be utilized against it. On this assurance Muslim League
during its earlier years into politics decided to side with British if they continue to favor
the community across India.

The decision to re-unite East and West Bengal was an eye opener for Muslims.
They realized that British are not there to provide relieve to anyone their only motif is
trade, profits earned from it and the revenues from India. During 1911 and 1912 the
leaders of Muslim League wanted to deviate from earlier objective of the League which
said to cultivate friendly relations with British.

Linally in the annual session of 1912-13 Muslim League announced the change in
its objectives. The friendly relations with British were replaced with the demand for self-
rule from British. This was a significant demand because it brought Muslim League and
Congress closer and it also compelled Muhammad Ali Jinnah to join Muslim League in
1913.

“At a meeting of the Council of the League in 1913 the adoption of the Congress
formula of colonial self-government as the constitutional objective was moved but found
no seconder, and the Council adopted in its place the formula, ' the attainment under the
aegis of the British Crown of a system of self-government suitable to India ' a decision
which the League confirmed. The President of the Council, Mr. (afterwards Sir)
Muhammad Shafi, denounced the Congress formula as inadmissible and unsound.” 13

Lucknow Pact 1916:

In 1913 Jinnah joined Muslim League. He was already a member of Congress

13 Coupland, The Indian Problem, Vol I, 46

Dr. M. Moiz Khan

Assistant Professor

Dept, of History, University of Karachi
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since he came back to India. After joining Muslim League he believed that these two
political parties could come closer and work together. He believed that they both are
Indians and they should not become each-others weakness. The change of objectives by
Muslim League in 1913 brought these two political parties closer due to the common
demand of Self Rule.

Jinnah was successful to convince both parties to conduct their annual session at
the same time in same city. Lucknow was chosen for this purpose. After conducting their
own sessions both conducted a common session.

i. For the first time the Congress agreed to the right of separate electorates for
Muslims. They also introduced the separate electorates in Punjab and Bengal
where they did not exist.

ii. They agreed that no bill will be passed in any provincial assembly if % of the
community concerned with that law agrees to it.

iii. Muslims were given the 1/3 seats in the councils where their ratio was l A.

iv. In another demand it was asked that any act or law passed by a large majority
in any provincial council should become a binding on the government.

v. Provincial autonomy was asked in all provinces.

vi. Both parties agreed that they will protect the rights of minorities living in
their areas.

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0322-2391591, moiz200@yahoo.com

Lucknow Pact

Scheme of Reforms passed at the 31 st session of the

Indian National Congress held at Lucknow on 29
December, 1916, and adopted by the All-India
Moslem League at its Meeting on 31 December,
1916

I Provincial Legislative Councils:

1. Provincial Legislative Councils shall consist of
four-fifths elected and of one-fifth nominated
members.

2. Their strength shall be not less than one hundred
and twenty-five members in the Major Provinces,
and from fifty to seventy-five in the Minor
Provinces.

3. The members of Councils should be elected
directly by the people on as broad a franchise as
possible.

4. Adequate provision should be made for the
representation of important minorities by election,
and that the Mahomedans should be represented
through special electorates on the Provincial
Legislative Council.

Punjab—One half of the elected Indian members.
United Provinces—30 per cent.

Bengal—40 per cent.

Behar—25 per cent.

Central Provinces—15 per cent.

Madras—15 per cent.

Bombay—One-third

Provided that Mahomedans shall not participate in
any of the other elections to the Legislative
Councils. Provided further that no Bill, nor any
clause thereof, nor a resolution introduced by a non¬
official member affecting one or the other
community, which question is to be determined by
the members of that community in the Legislative
Council concerned, shall be proceeded with, if three-
fourths of the members of that community in the
particular Council, Imperial or Provincial, oppose
the bill or any clause thereof or the resolution.

5. The head of the Provincial Government should
not be the President of the Legislative Council, but
the Council should have the right of electing its
President.

6. The right of asking supplementary questions

should not be restricted to the member putting the
original question but should be allowed to be
exercised by any other member.

7. (a) Except customs, post, telegraph, mint, salt,
opium, railways, army and navy, and tributes from
Indian States, all other sources of revenue should be
provincial.

(b) There should be no divided heads of
revenue. The Government of hidia should be
provided with fixed contributions from the
Provincial Governments, such fixed contributions
being liable to revision when extraordinary and
unforeseen contingencies render such revision
necessary.

(c) The Provincial Council should have full
authority to deal with all matters affecting the
internal administration of the province, including the
power to raise loans, to impose and alter taxation
and to vote on the Budget. All items of expenditure
and all proposals concerning ways and means for
raising the necessary revenue should be embodied in
Bills and submitted to the Provincial Council for
adoption.

(d) Resolutions on all matters within the
purview of the Provincial Government should be
allowed for discussion in accordance with rules
made in that behalf by the Council itself.

(e) A resolution passed by the Legislative
Council shall be binding on the Executive
Government, unless vetoed by the Governor in
Council, provided however that if the resolution is
again passed by the Council after an interval of not
less than one year, it must be given effect to.

(f) A motion for adjournment may be brought
forward for the discussion of a definite matter of
urgent public importance if supported by not less
than one-eighth of the members present.

8. Any special meeting of the Council may be
summoned on a requisition by not less than one
eighth of the members.

9. A Bill, other than a Money Bill, may be
introduced in Council in accordance with the rules
made in that behalf by the Council itself and the
consent of the Government should not be required
therefor.

10. All Bills passed by Provincial Legislatures shall
have to receive the assent of the Governor before

they become law, but may be vetoed by the
Governor-General.

II. The terms of office of the members shall be five
years.

II Provincial Governments

1. The head of every Provincial Government shall be
a Governor who shall not ordinarily belong to the
Indian Civil Service or any of the permanent
services.

2. There shall be in every Province an Executive
Council which, with the Governor, shall constitute
the Executive Government of the Province.

3. Members of the Indian Civil Service shall not
ordinarily be appointed to the Executive Councils.

4. Not less than one-half of the members of
Executive Council shall consist of Indians to be
elected by the elected members of the Provincial
Legislative Council.

5. The term of office of the members shall be five
years.

III. Imperial Legislative Council

1. The strength of the Imperial Legislative Council
shall be one hundred and fifty.

2. Four-fifths of the members shall be elected.

3. The franchise for the Imperial Legislative Council
should be widened as far as possible on the lines of
the Mahomedan electorates, and the elected
members of the Provincial Legislative Councils
should also form an electorate for the return of
members to the Imperial Legislative Council.

4. The President of the Council shall be elected by
the Council itself.

5. The right of asking supplementary questions shall
not be restricted to the member putting the original
question but" should be allowed to be exercised by
any other member.

6. Any special meeting of the Council may be
summoned on a requisition by not less than one
eighth of the members.

7. A Bill, other than a Money Bill, may be
introduced in Council in accordance with rules made
in that behalf by the Council itself, and the consent
of the Executive Government should not be required
therefor.

8. All Bills passed by the Council shall have to
receive the assent of the Governor-General before
they become law.

9. All financial proposals relating to sources of
income and items of expenditure shall be embodied
in Bills. Every such Bill and the Budget as a whole
shall be submitted for the vote of the Imperial
Legislative Council.

10. The term of office of members shall be five
years.

11. The matters mentioned here in below shall be
exclusively under the control of the Imperial
Legislative Council:

(a) Matters in regard to which uniform
legislation for the whole of hidia is desirable.

(b) Provincial legislation in so far as it may
affect inter-provincial fiscal relations.

revenue, excepting tributes from Indian States.

(d) Questions affecting purely Imperial
expenditure, except that no resolution of the
Imperial Legislative Council shall be binding on the
Governor-General in Council in respect of military
charges for the defence of the country.

(e) The right of revising Indian tariffs and
customs-duties, of imposing, altering, or removing
any tax or cess, modifying the existing system
currency and banking, and granting any aids or
bounties to any or all deserving and nascent
industries of the country.

(f) Resolutions on all matters relating to the
administration of the country as a whole.

12. A resolution passed by the Legislative Council
should be binding on the Executive Government,
unless vetoed by the Governor- General in Council:
provided, however, that, if the resolution is again
passed by the Council after an interval of not less
than one year, it must be given effect to.

13. A motion for adjournment may be brought
forward for the discussion of a definite matter of

urgent public importance, if supported by not less
than one-eighth of the members present.

14. The Crown may exercise its power of veto in
regard to a Bill passed by a Provincial Legislative
Council or by the Imperial Legislative Council
within twelve months from the date on which it is
passed, and the Bill shall cease to have effect as from
the date on which the fact of such veto is made
known to the Legislative Council concerned.

15. The Imperial Legislative Council shall have no
power to interfere with the Government of India's
direction of the military affairs and the foreign and
political relations of India, including the declaration
of war, the making of peace and the entering into
treaties.

IV. The Government of India

1. The Governor-General of India will be the head
of the Government of India.

2. He will have an Executive Council, half of whom
shall be Indians.

3. The Indian members should be elected by the
elected members of the Imperial Legislative
Council.

4. Members of the Indian Civil Service shall not
ordinarily be appointed to the Executive Council of
the Governor-General.

5. The power of making all appointments in the
Imperial Civil Services shall vest in the Government
of India as constituted under this scheme, and
subject to any laws that may be made by the Imperial
Legislative Council.

6. The Government of India shall not ordinarily
interfere in the local affairs of a province, and
powers not specifically given to a Provincial
Government shall be deemed to be vested in the
former. The authority of the Government of India
will ordinarily be limited to general supervision and
superintendence over the Provincial Governments.

7. hi legislative and administrative matters, the
Government of India, as constituted under this
scheme, shall, as far as possible, be independent of
the Secretary of State.

8. A system of independent audit of the accounts of
the Government of India should be instituted.

V The Secretary of State in Council

1. The Council of the Secretary of State for India
should be abolished.

2. The salary of the Secretary of State should be
placed on the British Estimates.

3. The Secretary of State should, as far as possible,
occupy the same position in relation to the
Government of India as the Secretary of State for the
Colonies in relation to the Governments of the self-
governing Dominions.

4. The Secretary of State for India should be assisted
by two permanent under-secretaries, one of whom
should always be an Indian.

VI, Military and Other Matters of Policy

1. The military and naval services of His Majesty,
both in their commissioned and non-commissioned
ranks, should be thrown open to Indians and
adequate provision should be made for their
selection, training and instruction in India.

2. Indians should be allowed to enlist as volunteers.

3. Indians should be placed on a footing of equality
in respect of status and rights of citizenship with
other subjects of His Majesty the King throughout
the Empire.

4. The Executive Officers in India shall have no
judicial powers entrusted to them, and the judiciary
in every province shall be placed under the highest
Court of that province.

Dr. M. Moiz Khan

Assistant Professor

Dept, of History, University of Karachi
0322-2391591, moiz200@yahoo.com

“This agreement between the two major political organisations may be regarded as
the most striking expression of Indian nationalism so far achieved within the
bounds of British India. And it was only achieved by major concessions on both
sides. The Congress at last conceded separate Moslem electorates. It even
acquiesced in their introduction in the Punjab and the Central Provinces, where
they had not hitherto existed. Seats, moreover, on the Councils were allotted to
those electorates on a generous scale. In Bengal the Moslems were to obtain only
three-quarters of the seats to which they would have been entitled on a purely
numerical basis, and in the Punjab only nine-tenths ; but in both these Provinces
this was a great increase on the extent of Moslem representation under the Morley-
Minto Reforms : in Bengal it was raised from 10-4 to 40 per cent, in the Punjab
from 25 to 50 per cent.2 And in the other Provinces the Moslems were to obtain
many more seats than they had at present or would have on a population basis : in
the United Provinces and Madras, for example, a 14 and 6-15 per cent Moslem
population would have a 30 and 15 per cent representation. Moslem strength at the
Centre was similarly increased by the allotment of one-third of the elections to the
Council to separate Moslem constituencies. The Moslems, it is true, were to
surrender the additional advantage they had obtained in 1909 of also voting in
general electorates; but by the more conservative or communal-minded among them
this may well have been regarded as no loss, since it emphasised and secured the
distinction between the two communities. A final safeguard and, however it might
work in practice, a notable departure from the pure doctrine of ‘majority rule ' was
provided by the application of the device adopted in the Congress constitution. No
bill or resolution affecting a community should be proceeded with if three-fourths
of the representatives of that community were opposed to it.” 14

Khilafat movement (1919-1924

Dr. M. Moiz Khan

Assistant Professor

Dept, of History, University of Karachi
0322-2391591, moiz200@yahoo.com

Different aspects to be covered in this topic;

1. Why did the Khilafat movement start?

2. The movement was week from the start

3. Events of Khilafat Movement.

4. The reasons for its failure.

Dr. M. Moiz Khan

Assistant Professor

Dept, of History, University of Karachi
0322-2391591, moiz200@yahoo.com

1 Why did the Khilafat movement start?

It was a political movement launched by the Muslims of sub-continent. There
were two main reasons behind Khilafat Movement i. Protection of Ottoman Empire and
Caliph and ii. To join all the Muslims of the world under single caliph like the early days

14 Coupland Vol I, 47-48

of Islam by re-establishing the system of Caliphate.

The First World War started in 1914. Indian Sub-continent was under the rule of
British. The Great War was amongst two groups of countries. First group was led by
England and the second group was led by Germany. In the German group a very
important ally was Turkey. Turkey was the seat of Caliphate of Muslims. “Caliph” means
“successor” or “representative”. British asked Indians to fight along with them in the war
against Germany. The Muslims of India refused to fight against Turkey which was
supporting Germany. After the reversal of Partition of Bengal in 1911 Muslim League
lost confidence in British and started to build friendly relations with Congress. On behalf
of this friendship Hindus also refused to fight for British. To further convince Indians
British said that their main enemy is not Turkey. They further assured that after the war
Turkey would not be treated harshly. On behalf of this assurance Indians decided to
support British.

The First World War ended in 1918. After the war the victorious countries
started to treat all of the loosing countries harshly through different treaties. The first
treaty which affected Turkey was the “Armistice of Mudros” signed on 30 th October
1918. According to this treaty Turkey accepted defeat in the war and surrendered Hejaz,
Yemen, Syria, Mesopotamia, Tripolitania, and Cyrenaica. The allies also got control over

Dardanelles and the Bosporus the two traits of Black sea, which lie within the boundaries
of Turkey. Then Treaty of Sevres in 1920 August 10 th further humiliated Turkey. It broke
the Ottoman Empire and reduced the control Turkey to the city of Istanbul and
surrounding territory and to part of Asia Minor.

The Muslims of India felt that they have been cheated by British. In 1919 they
started to raise their voice against this harsh treatment of Turkey. They also reminded
British about their promise in which they said that Turkey would be left alone after the
war. When these early attempts did not work then people like Maulana Muhammad Ali
Jauhar, Maulana Shaukat Ali Jauhar, Abul Kalam Azad etc. started a full fledge
movement to pressurize British.

Another long term or wider goal of the movement was to unite all Mu slims of
the world against anti-Muslim forces such as west.

Dr. M. Moiz Khan

Assistant Professor

Dept, of History, University of Karachi

0322-2391591, moiz200@yahoo.com

2 The movement was weak from the start

The movement was weak from the start. The basic reason behind the movement
was the restoration of Caliphate in Turkey, but on the contrary the people of Turkey
wanted to get rid of Caliphate and make Turkey a republic under the leadership of Kamal
Ataturk. So the claim of restoration from outside by design became week.

Secondly the aim to unite all Muslims of the world under the leadership of one
Caliph was also an idealistic one. The institution of Caliphate was able to run properly
only under the four pious Caliphs. After the takeover of Umayyad’s the institution was

lost and it became kingship where the successors were nominated and families ruled. The
Muslim world had many diverse cultures and people during the days of Khilafat
Movement.

3 Events of Khilafat Movement

The movement started with few people but shortly it gained momentum and
mass in India. The first session of Khilafat conference was held 1919 December. Dr.
Mukhtar Ahmed Ansari, Hasrat Mohani, Maulana Abul Kalam Azad and Dr. Hakim
Ajmal Khan along with Shaukat Ali and Muhammad Ali Jauhar established Khilafat
Committee.

30 March Gandhi had given a call of general strike all across Indian, which was later
delay to April 6. However in Delhi strike was conducted on 30 March and violence erupted.
As a result some Hindus and Muslims died. The next day in Namaz e Janaza of Muslims in
Jama Musjid Delhi Hindus emerged to show solidarity with Muslims against British. There
Sawami Shardhanand an Arya Samajh leader arrived and he was asked to take the pulpit to
address the crowd 15 . It was an unprecedented event when a non-Muslim was given space on
pulpit in such an important mosque. Dr M Moiz Khan

Assistant Professor

Dept, of History, University of Karachi
0322-2391591, moiz200@yahoo.com

First Khilafat conference 23 and 24 Nov. 1919 in Delhi

19 Jan. 1920 Khilafat deputation of 35 went to meet viceroy led by Ansari

Khilafat delegation led by Muhammad Ali went to England and met Lloyd George PM

England on 17 March 1920.

Dr. M. Moiz Khan

Assistant Professor

Dept, of History, University of Karachi
0322-2391591, moiz200@yahoo.com

Source: Young India (20 October 1921); writer Gandhi;

“I claim that with us both the Khilafat is the central fact, with Maulana Muhammad Ali
because it is his religion, with me because in laying down my life fir the Khilafat I ensure the
safety of the cow, that is my religion, from the Mussalman knife. Both hold swaraj equally dear
because only swaraj is the safety of our respective faith possible. ’

4 The reasons for its failure:

The movement was fragile from the beginning. It did not last long and started to
erode with time. Some main reasons behind the failure of the Khilafat movement are
discussed as under:

a) Hijrat Movement 1920

15 Gail 70.

In 1920 some religious leaders and the leaders of Khilafat movement declared
Indian Sub-continent a “Dar-ul-Harb”. It means a place where Muslims cannot live their
lives according to the teachings and practices of Islam. Around 20000 Muslims from
Sind, Punjab and N.W.F.P migrated to Afghanistan, the nearest “Dar-ul-Islam”. They
sold all of their belongings and other house hold to go to Afghanistan. When they
reached there the government of Afghanistan refused to take them in. They were turned
back forcibly.

Most of them died on the way. The ones who were able to reach back found it
very difficult to start a new life. In other words it was a complete failure and brought
humiliation for the leaders of Khilafat movement. People lost their confidence in the

leadership. Dr. M. Moiz Khan

Assistant Professor

Dept, of History, University of Karachi

b) Chaura Chauri incident 1922 0322 - 2391591 , moiz200@yahoo.com

In 1920, the leaders of Khilafat Movement decided to start Non-Cooperation
movement under the guidance of Gandhi. British arrested these leaders on behalf of this
movement. Through time, the movement grew more violent due to the frustration they
were facing. In 1922, an angry mob torched a police station. 22 police officers also were
killed in this incident.

When Gandhi got this news in the jail, he decided to withdraw his support from
the movement. He said that now the movement has become very violent and he cannot
be a part to any violent movement. He was a strong follower of the theory of “Ahinsa”,
meaning non-violence. With the departure of Gandhi all the Hindus supporting the
movement also left and the movement became weak because now only Muslims were
supporting the cause. Dr. M. Moiz Khan

Assistant Professor

Dept, of History, University of Karachi

c) Proclamation of Republic in Turkey 192 4 0322-2391591, moiz200@yahoo.com

Since the end of World War I a movement for democracy in Turkey started.

It aimed the monarchy or Caliphate in Turkey. The last Caliph signed a very humiliating
treaty with the victorious powers and it caused unpopularity for the Caliph. Finally, in
1924 the movement got successful under the leadership of Kamal Ataturk. The people of
Turkey abolished Caliphate and declared Turkey a Republic.

When the people of Turkey themselves abolished Caliphate then the demand to
restore Caliphate from other countries made no sense.

Montague Chelmsford Reforms or Act of India 1919:

Immediately after the Second World War, British brought a new constitution in
India. According to them it gave more opportunity and power to the local people. This
can be said right in theory but in practice it was nothing like what they claimed it was.
In reality all the powers were in the hands of British. Some salient features of these
reforms are as under.

1. The Central Legislature was divided into two houses. Counsel of state and
Legislative assembly.

New composition of various legislative houses

House

Elected

Nominated

Term

Total

Council of

State

5 years

Legislative

Assembly

103

3 years

144

Provincial

Assemblies

70%

30%

Table 16

2. The voter qualification was relaxed due to which more Indians got the chance to vote.

3. The Viceroy of India (a British officer) was given Veto power to stop any law which
he did not agree to.

4. The recommendations made in 1916 regarding passing of any law concerning a
particular community was accepted. In it, it was recommended that any law which
affects or concerns any particular community would not be passed if % elected
members of that community agree to it in that province.

5. A new system of diarchy 17 was introduced in the provincial governments, “di”
means two and “archy” means rule it means dual rule. The administration of
provinces was divided in between Chief Minter and Governor. The thing to
understand here is that Chief Ministers were to be elected so they represented the
people of that province. On the other hand the Governors were selected and
appointed by the Viceroy which means they were not the representatives of the
people.

The administration was divided into two section i. Reserved Subjects and ii.
Transferred Subjects. First section was given to Governors and the second was given
to Chief Ministers. In reserved subjects all important ministries related to the
collection of taxes were retained by British. This way they had the upper hand and
they did not lose any money.

Reserved Subjects (Governor)

Transferred Subjects (C.M)

1 .

Finance.

1 .

Health.

Police.

Sanitation.

Maintenance of peace and order.

Local government.

Revenue.

Public works.

Publication of books and newspaper.

Agriculture.

Famine.

Cooperative societies.

16 See, L.P. Sharma, History of British India and P. Spear

17 It can be spelled as diarchy and dyarchy, both are correct.

On paper British transferred some subjects to Indian but in reality real powers
were still in the hands of British because whenever any Indian minister wanted to
construct a school or college he needed money and money was still in the hands of
British. Diarchy was actually introduced in 1921.

6. Central Government under VR would look after the following subjects for whole
of India, defence, foreign affairs, railway, telegraph, foreign trade,, currency etc.

7. New provinces were made which increased the number of provinces to eight,
i. Assam, ii. Bengal, iii. Bihar, iv. Bomb ay, v. Madhya Pradesh, vi. Ori ssa, vii.
Punjab, and viii. Uttar Pradesh. | Dr. M. Moiz Khan

Assistant Professor

Dept, of History, University of Karachi
0322-2391591, moiz200@yahoo.com

8. Separate electorates were retained for Muslims and extended to new communities.
Such as, Sikhs, Anglo-Indians, Christians and the Europeans.

Reaction of Muslim League and Congress on these reforms.

Both parties refused to accept these reforms because majority of the demands were
not accepted. The system of diarchy was also heavily criticized by all Indians. Both parties
knew that British government has played a trick through introduction of diarchy. This
way the real financial powers were still in the hands of British. Self-rule was also not
accepted in these reforms.

Rowlett Act:

On February 6, 1919 a bill was introduced in Imperial Legislative Council for
approval 18 . Immediately a sharp reaction was sparked from Muslims and Hindus alike
and a heated debate arose over the rights of Indians. On March 18, same year the bill was
passed and stirred political agitation.

It was an act which was specifically introduced to control the different political
movements in India during that time. The most important movement was Khilafat
Movement which was gaining momentum. British after dealing with First World War
started to concentrate in Indian Affairs.

Through this act the police became powerful to arrest anyone without warrant and
any reason. The arrested people also did not have any right to go on trial. This meant that
police can do anything at any time and the people of India did not have any security from
police. The most political slogan against this law was “na daleel na wakeel” (not reason
and no lawyer). Jinnah resigned from the legislative council in protest of this act because
he was strongly against it.

18 See, Gail Minault, The Khilafat Movement: Religious Symbolism and Political Mobilization in India (New
York: Columbia University Press, 1982), 69

Jhalianwala Bagh Incident:

On April 13, 1919 19 people living around Jhalianwala Bagh gathered into the
garden to celebrate a local festival. The military in charge of Amritsar General Dyer
appeared on the scene with his forces. He ordered people to leave the area or he would
shoot indiscriminately. The local people ignored him and continued with their festivities.
Finally General Dyer ordered his forces to shoot at people at their will. Around 400 people
died at the spot and 1600 injured.

Initiation of Constitutional reforms:

According to Montague Chelmsford Reforms constitutional reforms would be
revisited after 10 years. It became a pretext of the constitutional activity since the start of
1927. On December 25, 1926 Congress conducted its annual session Ghauhati 20 . They
passed a resolution calling upon, “the Working Committee to take immediate steps in
consultation with Hindus and Mussalman leaders to devise measures for the removal of
the present deplorable differences between Hindus and Mussalman and submit their
report to the All India Congress Committee not later than the 32st March, 1927” 21 .

Dr. M. Moiz Khan

Assistant Professor

Dept, of History, University of Karachi
0322-2391591, moiz200@yahoo.com

Simon Commission (1927):

In 1927 the secretary of state for India Lord Birkenhead announced a commission
to work for the recommendations for the new constitution of India, which would replace
Montague Chelmsford Reforms of 1919. It was good news for Indians but there was a
surprise of bad news in it. He did not include any Indian in it and was strongly against the
idea of including Indians in any type of legislation process for India. He stated that Indians
are not capable of legislation. They cannot agree on anything among themselves and can
only criticize on legislation done by British.

This commission was not accepted by almost all Indian political parties. There
was only one section of Muslim League which welcomed it. The league got divided on
this issue. One section was under Jinnah called Jinnah League and the other was under
the leadership of Shafi called Shafi league or Punjab league. The Punjab or Shafi League
welcomed it and Jinnah was against it.

The report of this commission came out in 1929, which was rejected by all political
parties of India.

Dr. M. Moiz Khan

Assistant Professor

Dept, of History, University of Karachi
0322-2391591, moiz200@yahoo.com

Delhi Muslim Proposals:

In accordance to the Congress Party’s initiation, Muslims on their beha
meeting in Delhi to offer constitutional proposals of their own which could be acceptable

f called a

19 Ibid 70

20 This session became important because of the assassination of Swami Shraddhanand by a Muslim, Abdul
Rashid on December 23, 1926 just 2 days earlier than the session.

21 The Nehru Report An Anti-Separatist Manifesto, 18-19

to all parties and protected Muslim rights. As a result on March 20, 1927 following
proposals were drafted and forwarded to Congress;

i. Sindh should be separated from Bombay and made a province.

ii. Reforms should be in traduced in N.W.F.P and Baluchistan on the same footings
as in any other province of India.

iii. Reservation of seats according to population for different communities in Punjab
and Bengal.

iv. Muslims should be given 1/3 representation in central legislature.

On the very next day Congress Working Committee passed a resolution and
welcomed the decision of Muslims to surrender separate electorates. A sub-committee of
CWC was constituted to consider various proposals presented to them 22 . Later in May
from 15 th to 18 th CWC conducted its meetings and presented their own proposal regarding
minorities 23 . They considered proposal presented to them from all minorities and smaller
political parties, such as Muslims, Hindu Mahasabah etc.

Congress approved and adopted three of the four demands forwarded by Muslims,
except 1/3 representation of Muslims in central legislature.

All Parties Conference and Nehru Report:

In response to this commission Congress being the largest political party of India
invited all other political parties to talk. They called All Parties Conference in 1928. Dr.
M.A. Ansari was the president of the conference. The main idea was that British have put
up a challenge in front of Indians and now the time has come to unite and work together.
All political parties of India welcomed it. Even Muslims League under Jinnah was a part
of this unified effort.

A committee was shaped under the chairmanship of Motilal Nehru (father of
Jawaharlal Nehru) on May 19, 1928 and following were the various members;

i. Motilal Nehru. (Congress) (Chairman of the committee)

ii. Sir Tej Bahadur Sapru. (Liberals)

iii. Sir Ali Imam.

iv. Shoaib Qureshi.

v. Pradhan.

vi. Subhas Chandra Bose.

vii. Madhorao Aney.

viii. M.R. Jayakar.
xi. N. M. Joshi.

x. Sardar Mangal Singh.

xi. Jawaharlal Nehru
committee) 24

(Muslims)

(Muslims)
(Non-Brahman)
(Congress)

(Hindu Mahasabha)
(Hindu Mahasabha)
(Labor)

(Sikhs)

(Congress) (Served

Dr. M. Moiz Khan

Assistant Professor

Dept, of History, University of Karachi
0322-2391591, moiz200@yahoo.com

as the secretary of the

22 The sub-committee consisted of, Sarojni Naidu, Moti Lai Nehru, Srinivasa and Maulana Muhammad Ali.

23 Anti-Separatist manifesto, 21

24 “The Nehru Report: An Anti-Separatist Manifesto”, (New Delhi: Michiko & Panjathan, 1975), 23.

There were two Muslim members in this committee as well. When the report came
out it was not acceptable to Muslims. Only two members Shoaib Qureshi and Pradhan did
not sign the minutes. It was against the benefit of minorities. Sir Ali Imam attended only
one meeting thus signed it later when the minutes were presented to him 25 .

Jinnah made a very famous statement on this occasion that, “it is the parting of the ways”,
of Hindus and Muslims. Since then Muslims and Hindus never came on terms again and
started working for their own separate agendas.

1. Immediate dominion status.

2. “Declaration of Rights”, should be adopted, insuring fullest liberty of conscience and

religion. Dr. M. Moiz Khan

3. N.W.F.P should be given full provincial status. Assistant Professor

Dept, of History, University of Karachi

4. Sind should be separated from Bombay. 0322-2391591, moiz200@yahoo.com

5. *Separate Electorates should be immediately abolisheo

6. *No weightage should be allowed.

7. Reservation of seats was recommended in center and provinces where they are in
minority only, and reservation was strictly to the proportion of population.

8. Bi-cameral legislature was proposed, Senate as upper house and House of
representatives as lower house.

a. *Senate would have 200 seats. Its members would be elected from provincial
councils and representation of provinces would be proportional to its population. 26

b. “House of Representatives” of 500 should be constituted on the basis of direct
elections from all over India according to the population.

9. *Residuary powers would be given to the center. 27

NOTE: (* means these points were contradictory to the federal form of government and
not acceptable to minorities.)

These constitutional recommendations were hinting towards the domination of
majority population in a country which was deeply divided on ethnic and religious lines.
It hinted towards federalism however it was as unitary as the 1919 Montague-Chelmsford
reforms were 28 . These constitutional recommendations were seen as legal yoke to strangle
minorities. Anticipating it two members of the committee from minorities refused to sign
it, Shoaib Qureshi (representing Muslims) and Pradhan (representing low caste Hindus).

Muhammad Ali Jinnah was disappointed on the proceedings of APC. He proposed
three amendments to the Nehru Report on December 22, 1928 and offered to agree to all
other recommendations. However Congress refused to accommodate these
recommendations.

i. One third (1/3) seats reserved in the center for Muslims.

25 Coupland 95

26 This is a wrong method of representation of provinces in upper house. In upper house representation should
be regardless of population proportion, such as USA senate has 100 members, 2 from each 50 states.

27 Residuary powers means all those subjects not mentioned in the concurrent list. It was negation of federalism.
Smaller provinces would be neglected and over powered by central government.

28 See, Coupland, 94

ii. Reserved seats for Muslims in Punjab and Bengal.

iii. Federal form of government with residuary powers vested in the provinces 29 .

All Parties Muslim Conference at Delhi:

Dissatisfied by the outcome of deliberations after Nehru Report Muslims decided
to do away with their differences and join in to show solidarity and seriousness towards
Muslim aspirations. All shades of Muslim polity in India sat under one roof in Delhi on
January 1, 1929. Prominent Muslims, who had expressed their disapproval of each other,
shelved their differences and attended the meeting. The following demands were
unanimously voiced as a result of this important event;
i. Federal form of government, with full provincial au tonomy and residuary powers 30

vested with provinces.

Separate electorates should continue.

Weightage should be given to Muslims.

iii.

iv.

Dr. M. Moiz Khan

Assistant Professor

Dept, of History, University of Karachi
0322-2391591, moiz200@yahoo.com

Muslims should have due share in central and provincial cabinets

Fourteen points of Jinnah

Nehru report was not acceptable to Muslims and they had already rejected the
Simon Commission. Now Muslims had to come up with a set of their own demands which
they could put in front of British. Jinnah took up this task and presented fourteen points.
In these points he summed up all the demands of Muslims of India.

This was the first time that Muslims of India came up with constitutional
recommendations. For a long time it was believed that Muslims are not capable enough
to take part in constitutional developments. Fourteen points proved to British and Hindus
that they were wrong and made them, realize the fact that now Muslims will not accept
such legislation which is against their rights. It also declared that Muslims of Sub¬
continent are not just spectators.

Dr. M. Moiz Khan

Assistant Professor

Dept, of History, University of Karachi
0322-2391591, moiz200@yahoo.com

29 S.M. Burke, 267

30 Any powers which are not listed in Concurrent list fall in residuary powers, hi this way the legislature get the
authority to make laws and regulations on all such matters.

31 See, Burke 268

Dr. M. Moiz Khan

Assistant Professor

Dept, of History, University of Karachi
0322-2391591, moiz200@yahoo.com

First ever demand of full independence:

In 1929 the annual session of Congress was held in Lahore. Jawaharlal Nehru was
the president of the session. In his presidential address he demanded full independence
of India and complete withdrawal of British from India on 26 th January. Later on they
took this demand back during the second round table conference for the time being. Today
Indians celebrate republic day on 26 th January every year and it’s their national holiday.

Allahabad Address 1930:

Dr. M. Moiz Khan

Assistant Professor

Dept, of History, University of Karachi
0322-2391591, moiz200@yahoo.com

The All India Muslim League decided to conduct its annual session of 1930 at
Allahabad. Allama Iqbal was the president of this session. This session became
memorable due to the presidential address of Allama Iqbal. In his address Allama
presented an outline of the future independent country for Muslims. In his long address
he emphasized on the need for an autonomous Muslim states 32 (provinces). I his address
he emphasized on the significance of the Muslim provinces or section ‘with in the body
politic of India’.

He said that Indian Muslims have the highest proportion in army compared to their
proportion of population in whole of India. Such as Muslims at the time were around 23
percent of the total population and in army they were around 35 to 40 percent. He also
said that if any attack is carried out on Indian (from Russia or any one from West on land)
then this Muslim section would serve as the best defender of India.

He specifically said that, “7 would like to see the Punjab, North-West Frontier
Province, Sind and Baluchistan amalgamated into a single State. Self-government within
the British Empire, or without the British Empire, the formation of a consolidated North -
West Indian Muslim State appears to me to be the final destiny of the Muslims, at least of
North-West India. ” This prophecy made by Allama became a reality in 1947. That is by
we say that Allama Iqbal saw the dream of Pakistan. However he did not specifically
demanded independent Muslim country out of India in his address.

See the original text of Allama Iqbal’s speech for further details.

Round Table Conferences:

Dr. M. Moiz Khan

Assistant Professor

Dept, of History, University of Karachi
0322-2391591, moiz200@yahoo.com

The constitutional process which was started by the announcement of Simon
Commission in 1927 was unresolved till 1930. To resolve this issue the Prime Minister
of England Ramsay McDonald through Viceroy o f India Lord Irwin invited all po litical
parties to London. Dr. M. Moiz Khan

Assistant Professor

Dept, of History, University of Karachi
0322-2391591, moiz200@yahoo.com

32 Ill those days the common word used for province was state. Allama used it in terms of provinces not as a
country.

First Round Table Conference;

The conference started on 12 th November 1930. All parties sent their
representatives to attend the session. Congress was not present in it. Congress demanded
independence on 26 th January 1929. Since then they started Civil Disobedience for grant
of their demands. They also decided to boycott the round table conference.

The first Round Table conference started in the absence of Congress. It was
impossible to achieve any constitutional solutions for India without including Congress
because it represented more than 70% of Indians. It was attended by other political parties
including Muslim League and the Princes of Independent states. Those who were present
there agreed on two basic principles.

i. Dominion status was demanded on, immediate basis. British said they
principally agree to the view point however it will be given once, the
“process of realizing responsible government in India as part of British
Empire was complete.” 33

ii. More responsible government was demanded in the center by Indians.

British reused to share power in the center however they were willing to
give powers to Indians in provinces.

iii. The idea of making federation in India was floated by Sir Tej Bahadur
Sapru and he invited all princely states to join the proposed federation.

This idea was supported by Maharaja of Bikaner, Muhammad Ali Jinnah
and Sir Shafi.

To proceed with the idea “Federal Structure sub-committee” was formed
with 21 total members, 6 British, 5, from states and 10 from British India,
it submitted its report on January, 15, 1931.

• Federation with bi-cameral legislation, Upper house should be
elected from provincial assembly and seats to provinces according
to population.

• Executive authority should be exercised by Dominion President,
Governor General would invite on minister to form government
which would be collectively responsible to the parliament.

• Finance would be in the hands of G.G. 34

iv. sddgdfs

Second Round Table Conference:

After the failure of the first round table conference the Prime Minister of England
Ramsay McDonald told Lord Irwin that he should make sure that the Congress would
attend the next conference going to be held in 1931. Lord Irwin met Gandhi in jail to discuss
the issue. Both of them agreed to resolve this matter. They made concessions to each
other and this agreement is known as Gandhi Irwin Pact.

Dr. M. Moiz Khan

Assistant Professor

Dept, of History, University of Karachi
0322-2391591, moiz200@yahoo.com

33 Coupland part I, 144

34 See. For details. Coupland part I, 119

Gandhi Irwin Pact 1931

Congress

British

1 .

Congress agreed to withdraw demand

1 .

British agreed to release all the

of independence.

prisoners of Congress.

Congress would attend the Second

British agreed to lift ban from the

Round Table conference.

political activities of Congress.

Congress would discontinue its civil
disobedience movement.

After it the Second Round Table started with maximum hope of success but no
one knew the true designs of Congress. Gandhi was alone to represent Congress in the
conference. The problem started when Gandhi started to treat other political parties with
disregard. He said that all the representatives present here are hangers on and do not
represent true India. He further said that British should only talk to Congress in regards
to the future of India.

Due to this arrogant attitude of Gandhi the Conference was bound to fail. The
second round table conference was also unable to achieve its objectives. The Prime
Minister Ramsay McDonald had made it clear that if Indians are unable to come up with
a solution then British government had the right to come up their own solutions. This
gave way to Communal Awards which were announced by the government before the
third round table conference.

Third Round Table Conference:

Dr. M. Moiz Khan

Assistant Professor

Dept, of History, University of Karachi
0322-2391591, moiz200@yahoo.com

The third round table conference was also hope less like the first one. Gandhi
went back to India after the second conference and started his civil disobedience

movement and was duly arrested. Mohammad Ali Jinnah had also left the politics of
India and went on a self-exile to England. This conference also ended without achieving
any success.

Chaudhry Rehmat Ali:

He was a very enthusiastic Muslim young man who was keen towards changing
the political and social conditions of Muslims of India. He was a student of Cambridge
University, Emanuel College in England during 1930’s. During the round table
conferences he was in England and wanted the Muslim delegates in the conferences to
demand a separate homeland for Muslims within the geographical boundaries of India
where Muslims would live with complete independence.

For this purpose he wrote a pamphlet known as “Now or Never” published in

January 1933. In it he demanded Muslim leaders to demand a new separate land for which
he also proposed a name “Pakistan”. He also mentioned the areas which he wanted to
become a part of Pakistan and he also took letters from these areas to make the word
PAKISTAN.

P = Punjab
A = Afghania
K - Kashmir
I = Used as a vowel
S = Sind

TAN = Baluchistan

Other than consisting of alphabets from the demanded areas the name has another
significance, it means “Land of Pure”.

Controversies attached to Ch. Rehmat Ali:

Ch. Rehmat Ali is one of those political figures who are not recognized as much
as others. There are many reasons behind less importance given by historians and other
political leaders to Rehmat Ali. First of all when he came up with the demand of Pakistan
no one (Muslim Leader) was in the mood of taking the struggle for the rights of Muslims
to another level of complete independence. He was not taken seriously at the time.

Later on when he progressed in politics he demanded two other independent states
out of India for Muslims along with Pakistan. The new states were, Bangistan (consisting
of today’s Bangladesh) and Usmanistan (consisting of Hyderabad Deccan in South India)
including the previous demand of Pakistan. Later he furthered his demands and finally in
third step he demanded seven (7) more independent Muslim states including the earlier
three, which made the total number of independent Muslim states to be 10 out of India.
Another significance of these particular demands was that if all these areas are given to
Muslims as independent states then the remaining India would become land locked. After
these demands no one took him seriously and every one ignored him to be as an idealist
who’s political vision is vague.

Another reason for ignoring him is that he was against the ideas of Jinnah and
openly used to say that Jinnah is not working in the favor of Muslims of India. He argued
that by making the current Pakistan a large number of Muslims would still remain in India
and they would be subjected to the same or may be more persecution or behalf of the
majority. He wrote a book “Pakistan” in which he has discussed his ideas about the
solution of Muslims of Pakistan. He did not come to Pakistan after independence and
continued his struggle for the remaining Muslims of India. He also wished not to be buried
in Pakistan so after his death he was buried in England where he still rests today. There
is a debate about bringing the remains of Ch. Rehmat Ali to Pakistan and construct his
mausoleum.

Self-Exile of Muhammad Ali Jinnah

Dr. M. Moiz Khan

Assistant Professor

Dept, of History, University of Karachi
0322-2391591, moiz200@yahoo.com

Dr. M. Moiz Khan

Assistant Professor

Dept, of History, University of Karachi
0322-2391591, moiz200@yahoo.com

In 1931 Muhammad Ali Jinnah left the politics of India and went to England. He
was disheartened from the politics and differences of Indian Muslims. He said that we
have so many differences amongst us that we cannot present a united front to our
opponents.

He stayed in England with his daughter and sister for three years.

Although he wanted to work for Indian Muslims but he knew that it was hopeless.
In 1934 Liaquat Ali Khan paid him a visit to England along his wife Begum Rana Liaquat.
There he was able to convince Jinnah to go back to India and work for the betterment of
Muslims. Liaquat Ali Khan offered Jinnah life time president ship and also assured that all
other Muslim Leaders would follow his advice. Muhammad Ali Jinnah came back from
his self-exile in 1934 and immediately started to work for the upheaval of Muslim League.
Under his leadership Muslim League became the most popular political party of Muslims
of India. In the elections of 1945-46 Muslim League proved its popularity.

Communal Awards (1932):

In 1932 when nothing was achieved through the first and second round table
conference then British decided to pressurize Indians to come up with a solution. Lor that
they presented Communal Awards in 1932 August just before the third round table
conference. They said if this time Indians do not decide something then they would have
the right to go ahead with Communal Awards. The main features of these awards are as
under.

1. The separate electorate would be continued for Muslims and would be extended
to other communities.

2. The population in Bengal was not correctly calculated and they decreased the
Muslim population on paper reducing their percentage to less than 50%.

3. In Punjab as well the Muslim population was reduced on paper.

These awards were rejected by Muslims because according to it they lost their

clear majority in Bengal and Punjab. Congress also rejected it because it retained the

separate electorates for Muslims.

Dr. M. Moiz Khan

Assistant Professor

Dept, of History, University of Karachi
0322-2391591, moiz200@yahoo.com

Self-exile of Jinnah and his return to politics:

The leadership of Muslims had shown weaknesses during 1920’s. The main
problem was the trust on each other’s and strategy. The leadership argued among them on
how to resolve the problems faced by Muslims of sub-continent. The major example of
these differences was the division of Muslim League in 1927 on the issue of Simon
Commission.

One section went with Sir Shafi who was of the idea that Muslim League should
welcome Simon Commission and support it. On the other hand Jinnah was of the idea

that because there are no Indians included in it so it should not be accepted. Sir Shafi
made a section of the League known as Punjab League and the people who went with
Jinnah became part of Jinnah League.

Although the two section of League came together again but differences did not
stop there. Finally after the First Round Table Conference Jinnah decide to leave the
politics of sub-continent and go to England. He left India in 1931 and settled in England
where he started to work as barrister. He lived there with his daughter and sister.

In 1934 Liaquat Ali Khan and other leaders of Muslim League decided that they
needed the leadership and guidance of Jinnah. Liaquat Ali Khan along with his wife Rana
Liaquat Ali went to England and convinced Jinnah that he should come back to India
because the Muslims of India needed his to guide them. He also offered him the lifetime
president-ship of Muslim League and assured that now there would be no differences
and every one listen to him. Jinnah came to India in 1934 and took the command of
Muslim League. Dr. M. Moiz Khan

Assistant Professor

Dept, of History, University of Karachi

Act of India 1935 1 0322 - 2391591 .moiz 200 @yahoo.com

The constitutional process which started with the announcement of Simon
Commission in 1927 finally ended in 1935 with the announcement of Act of India 1935.
British finally made a constitution themselves with keeping the demands of Indians in
their minds. The demands of Indians could not have been fulfilled because this way
British will lost their control over India. So this act was a mixture of many things. Some
salient features of this act are as under:

1. The country would become a federal form of Government in future and the
independent states would join the federation.

2. The system of diarchy was abolished in the provinces and was introduced at the
center.

3. There would be governor appointed by the viceroy in each province. These
governors would have special powers to dissolve the provincial. This was the
most controversial point in the act.

4. Sind would be separated from Bombay and would be made a new province.

5. Provinces would be given maximum autonomy, so the Chief Ministers can work
freely in the provinces.

6. India was going to be divided into 11 provinces.

7. Fresh elections would be conducted to form provincial and central legislative
assemblies.

8. The recommendations of Communal Awar ds of 1932 were incorporated in this

Act. Dr. M. Moiz Khan

Assistant Professor

Dept, of History, University of Karachi

Conclusion: 0322-2391591, moiz200@yahoo.com

Quid-e-Azam being the president of the Muslim League called it a defected piece
of document for many reasons. The League showed concerns about the decrease of

Muslim population in Punjab and Bengal on paper my British. Secondly the powers
which were given to governors of the provinces to dissolve the provincial assemblies
were against the principles of democracy. This means that the provincial government
would be in continuous pressure and fear that if they do something against the wishes of
British then they will dissolve the provincial assembly through the Governor. Lastly the
much debated system of diarchy was still in use in the central administration.

Federal form of government:

It is needed where there are more than two provinces.

It has two house parliaments, which is also known as bicameral legislation.

Its first house is elected on the basis population. So the provinces which has large
population will have more people. The second house has equal number of representation
from all provinces regardless of their population or size.

Pakistan is an example of this type.

Unitary form of government:

It is suitable in countries where there are no provinces at all, like England, Germany etc.

It has only one house parliament known as unicameral legislation.

There is no need to have the second house it only house is elected on the basis of
population.

Sweden, Greece, Sri Lanka, Turkey, China, Bangladesh, Denmark, Egypt etc. are
some examples of this system.

Dr. M. Moiz Khan

Assistant Professor

Dept, of History, University of Karachi
0322-2391591, moiz200@yahoo.com

Election of 1937:

These elections were very important for the politics of India in general and
politics of Muslim League in particular. The results of these elections were in favor of
Congress and Muslim League got its wakeup call. Congress was able to secure victory in
8 out of 11 provinces. On the other hand Muslim League was unable to form
Government in any of the provinces.

To make the things worse there were other Muslim local political parties which
got victory in provinces but not the League. In 5 out of 8 Congress provinces they had
full majority to form government and in the other three they formed coalition
governments.

In Punjab Sir Sikandar Hayat won the elections under his political party
Unionist. In N.W.F.P. Dr. Khan Sahab secured victory under his political party Red
Shirts but he formed government with the help of Congress. In Bengal, Fazul-ul-Haq
formed Government with the help of Independent Muslim candidates. The only
significant victory for Muslim League was in those provinces where Muslims were in
minority. In Muslim majority areas the League failed comprehensively.

Dr. M. Moiz Khan

Assistant Professor

Dept, of History, University of Karachi
0322-2391591, moiz200@yahoo.com

Election Results of 1937 elections of Sindh. Table 35

Party

Seats

Sindh United Party (28 candidates)

Congress

Muslim Political Party (10 candidates)

Sindh Azad Party (12 candidates)

Independents (Muslims and Hindus)

Total

Bengal 1937 elections

The election results (seats) were as follow:

Dr. M. Moiz Khan

Assistant Professor

Dept, of History, University of Karachi
0322-2391591, moiz200@yahoo.com

Party

Seats

1 .

Congress

Muslim League

Krishak Proja Party

European Group

Tripura Krishak Samity

Hindu Nationalist

Hindu Mahasabha

Anglo Indian

Independents (Muslim)

10.

Independents (Hindu)

11.

Christian

Total

250

Table 36

NWFP 1937 Elections

Party

Seats

1 .

Congress

Independent Muslim

Hindu-Sikh National Party

Independent Hindu

Independent Party

Total

35 Tanvir Ahmed Tahir, “Political Dynamics of Sindh 1947-1977”, (Karachi: Pakistan Study Center, UoK,
2010)103

36 Syed Umar Hayat, Muslim Political Ascendancy in Bengal: A Case Study of the Roles Played by the
Bengal Provincial Muslim League and the Krishak Proja Party (1906-41), Pakistan Journal of History and
Culture, VoLXXVm, No.2 (2007)

http://www.nihcr.edu.pk/latest_englishjournal/muslim_political_ascendancy.pdf , 119

Table 37 ,

Punjab in 1937 elections:

Party

Seats

1 .

Ahrar

Muslim League

Shiromani Akali Dal

Khalsa National Party

Hindu Mahasabha

Punjab Unionist Party

Ittehad-i-Millat

Indian National Congress

Congress Nationalist Party

Total

175

Congress became more rude towards all other political parties particularly
Muslims League. They started to say that Muslim League does not enjoy the support of
Muslims and Congress has more support of Muslims than the League.

Reasons for the failure of Muslim League:

Muslim League was formed in 1906 Dec. but in its first major elections after 31
years of its formation it was unable to achieve what it claimed. The League claimed that
they were the true representatives of Muslims of India but in the elections of 1937
Muslims of India preferred other local parties over the League. There are many reasons
behind this failure, which are as under:

1. The League’s leadership had aristocratic outlook. Most of them were Nawabs
and landlords. They did not have a proper link with common people. The meetings
of the league were also not attended by many people. This gulf between the
leadership and the common people played an important role in the defeat of
Muslim League in the elections of 1937.

2. The main demand of Muslim League was Separate Electorates. This demand
only addressed the issues of Muslims living in Hindu majority areas. The League
failed to address the issues of the Muslims of Muslim majority areas. This is why
the people of Muslim majority areas did not vote for the League.

3. Before the elections there was a very weak network of the offices of Muslim
League across India due to which the message of the League was not spreading

37 Muhammad Shakeel Ahmad, Electoral Politics in NWFP: A

Study of 1937 Elections, Pakistan Journal of History and Culture, Vol.XXXII, No.2 (2011), 129

properly. People also were unable to become a part of Muslim League due to lack
of offices.

Efforts of Jinnah to reconstruct Muslim

Jinnah after coming back to India from his self-exile stated to concentrate
towards the weaknesses of Muslim League. Following are the measures he took to make
Muslim League popular among the Muslim masses;

1. He visited many colleges and universities and met many students. He asked them to
participate in Muslim Politics to help their community to achieve its goals. He made them
believe that they are the future and they have to play their role.

2. Muslim League opened new offices in many different cities across the country to
accommodate more Muslims. This helped in spreading the message of Muslim League.

3. He travelled across India to get support from Muslims living in all parts of the country

Dr. M. Moiz Khan

Assistant Professor

Dept, of History, University of Karachi
0322-2391591, moiz200@yahoo.com

Congress Rule and difficulties faced by Muslims (1937-
39):

After a comprehensive victory Congress was able to form their government in 8
out of 11 provinces. In 5 of them they formed single party government and in other three
they formed coalition governments. Before taking oath Congress party made it sure that
there is no check on their ministries that is why they said that they will not take oath until
British assure that the governors of the provinces will not use their emergency powers.

After forming government Congress brought all the changes they wanted to
without considering the feeling of other communities’ particularly Muslim community.
Immediately after taking control Congress started to pass draconian laws which were
offensive to Muslims. Many Muslims living in the Congress provinces started to complain
to Muslim League. In March 1938 a committee of 8 members was formed to find out
about the grievances of Muslims. The chairman of this committee was Raja Syed
Muhammad Mehdi of Pirpur. The report came out in November 1938 which identified
and discussed the atrocities of Congress. Then another report came out in March 1939
known as Shareef Report which served the same purpose. Lastly Fazul Haq Report was
prepared to find out the atrocities faced my Muslims in provinces under Congress
Ministries. Following are the findings of these reports which describe the true picture of
Muslims of Hindu majority areas;

1. Ban on Azan:

The congress ministries banned “Azan” on loud speakers in their provinces. This

was a step which infuriated Muslims living in these provinces. Muslims are bound to
observe “Namaz” and “Azan” is the call for it. By taking this step they showed that they
do no care about other religions.

2. Ban on slaughtering of cows:

Cow is one of those animals which are not forbidden by Allah for Muslims. It also
is a main meat source for Muslims across the world. On “Eid-ul-Azha” Muslims sacrifice
animals in the path of Allah and cow is the main choice of most.

Dr. M. Moiz Khan

Assistant Professor

Dept, of History, University of Karachi

3. Disturbances during worships in mosques: 0322-239i59i.moiz200@yahoo.com

The congress supporters and Hindus used to conduct noisy processions during the
‘namaz’ time which was disturbing Muslims. Then in some places it was reported that
some fanatic Congress supporters threw dead pigs in Mosques.

4. Education Policy:

A new education policy was introduced under the title of Wardha Scheme. There
were many new proposals which were not acceptable to Muslims living in Congress
Provinces. The religious education was not allowed at any level. This way the Muslim
families thought that their children will slowly get far from their religion. Then the Hindu
principle of ‘Ahinsa’ was propagated on a large scale according to which one should not
resort to violence at any cost. On the other hand Islam also teaches about the peace but it
also tells Muslims to fight in the name of Allah, Jihad if someone tries to wage war against
you.

5. Schools and colleges:

Students of schools and colleges were supposed to pay respect to the portrait of
Gandhi on their way into the building. This was again an act which Muslims cannot
accept. Then in schools and colleges the practice of making thread by throwing wheel
was adopted. This was a political symbol of Congress which was started by Gandhi.

6. Wande Mataram:

A Hindu nationalist song was written by a Bengali writer. This song gave the
message that India is a sacred land only for Hindus and all the other people including
Muslims are outsiders.

Day of Deliverance 22 nd December 1939:

In September 1939 World War II started and again England was involved in it.
The government of England asked for support in the war from Indians. The people of
India replied that they will only support British in this war if they get complete
independence from British rule.

When British government did not accept this demand Congress party resigned from all of

their provincial ministries.

Jinnah considered this resignation as good news for all the Muslims who were
living under Congress government. He declared that on 22 nd December 1939 all Muslims
will celebrate Day of Deliverance. The main reason for this celebration was that now
Muslims would not have to face all the atrocities and hardships of Congress rule any
more.

Pakistan Resolution 23 rd March 1940:

The Muslim League decided to conduct its annual session of 1940 in Lahore in
Manto Park also known as Iqbal Park. During this session the final decision of most of
the Muslims of sub-continent was spelled out. A resolution was passed which changed
the future of all the people of India Muslims and non-Muslims.

A.K.Fazlul Haq forwarded the resolution asking a separate homeland for Muslims of
Western and Eastern India. _

Dr. M. Moiz Khan

Assistant Professor

Dept, of History, University of Karachi
0322-2391591, moiz200@yahoo.com

“While approving and endorsing the action taken by the Council and the Working Committee of
the All-India Muslim League, as indicated in their resolutions dated the 27th of August, 17th and 18th of
September and 22nd of October, 1939, and 3rd of February 1940, on the constitutional issue, this session
of the All-India Muslim League emphatically reiterates that the scheme of Federation embodied in the
Government of India Act, 1935 is totally unsuited to, and unworkable in the peculiar conditions of this
country and is altogether unacceptable to Muslim India.

It further records its emphatic view that while the declaration dated the 18th of October, 1939,
made by the Viceroy on behalf of His Majesty’s Government is reassuring in so far as it declares that the
policy and plan on which the Government of India Act, 1935 is based will be reconsidered in consultation
with the various parties, interests and communities in India, Muslim India will not be satisfied unless the
whole constitutional plan is reconsidered de novo and that no revised plan would be acceptable to the
Muslims unless it is framed with their approval and consent.

Resolved that it is the considered view of this session of the All-India Muslim League that no
constitutional plan would be workable in this country or acceptable to Muslims unless it is designed on
the following basic principle, namely, that geographically contiguous units are demarcated into regions
which should be so constituted, with such territorial readjustments as may be necessary, that the areas in
which the Muslims are numerically in a majority, as in the North-Western and Eastern Zones of India,
should be grouped to constitute ‘Independent States’ in which the constituent units shall be autonomous
and sovereign.

That adequate, effective and mandatory safeguards should be specifically provided in the
constitution for minorities in these units and in these regions for the protection of their religious, cultural,
economic, political, administrative and other rights and interests in consultation with them; and in other
parts of India where Mussalmans are in a minority, adequate, effective and mandatory safeguard shall be
specially provided in the constitution for them and other minorities for the protection of their religious,
cultural, economic, political, administrative and other rights and interests in consultation with them.

This session further authorizes the Working Committee to frame a scheme of constitution in
accordance with these basic principles, providing for the assumption finally by the respective regions of
all powers such as defence, external affairs, communications, customs and such other matters as may be
necessary”.

Besides many others, the Resolution was seconded by Chaudhary Khaliquzzam from UP, Maulana
Zafar Ali Khan from Punjab, Sardar Aurangzeb from the N. W. F. P, Sir Abdullah Haroon from Sindh,
and Qazi Muhammad Esa from Baluchistan. Those who seconded the resolution, in their speeches declared
the occasion as a historic one. The Resolution was eventually passed on the last day of the moot, i.e.
March 24”.

Cripps Mission Plan 1942:

Dr. M. Moiz Khan

Assistant Professor

Dept, of History, University of Karachi
0322-2391591, moiz200@yahoo.com

Since the start of the Second World War in 1939 British wanted the complete
support of Indians in the war. First offer was made in 1939 but it was refused by Indians
and Congress also resigned from their ministries. The events which occurred in the early
1940’s changed the situation and British thought that now Indians would reconsider their
position and may support the war.

In 1941 Japan attacked USA at Pearl Harbour and entered the Great War. It joined
the German Camp and declared war against England and her allies. England looked at it
as an opportunity to pursue India to support the war. Japan started to invade countries
towards east. India was in approach of Japan. If Japan wanted to attack England directly

it was very difficult because geographically England was very far from Japan. So the best
way to harm England was to attack India because it was the economic engine of England.

In 1942 British sent Stafford Cripps to India with a set of proposals for India. In
return they wanted Indian support in the war. The draft declaration which Cripps brought
with him to India was published on 30 th March 1942. These proposals are as under:

1. India would be made a dominion of United Kingdom.

2. Immediately after the war a new body for making a constitution would be framed
through provincial legislatures. Any constitution made by this body would be acceptable to
British.

3. India would be made a union and any province would be free to join this union or not.

“Draft Declaration for Discussion with Indian Leaders,
Wished March 30,1942

Dr. M. Moiz Khan

Assistant Professor

Dept, of History, University of Karachi
0322-2391591, moiz200@yahoo.com

The conclusions of the British War Cabinet as set out below are those whicl

Stafford Cripps has taken with him for discussion with the Indian Leaders and the
question as to whether they will be implemented will depend upon the outcome of these
discussions which are now taking place.

His Majesty's Government, having considered the anxieties expressed in this
country and in India as to the fulfilment of the promises made in regard to the future of
India, have decided to lay down in precise and clear terms the steps which they propose
shall be taken for the earliest possible realisation of self-government in India. The object
is the creation of a new Indian Union which shall constitute a Dominion, associated with
the United Kingdom and the other Dominions by a common allegiance to the Crown, but
equal to them in every respect, in no way subordina te in any aspect of its domestic or
external affairs. Dr. M. Moiz Khan

Assistant Professor

Dept, of History, University of Karachi

0322-2391591, moiz200@yahoo.com

His Majesty's Government therefore make the following declaration:

(a) Immediately upon the cessation of hostilities, steps shall be taken to set up in India,
in the manner described hereafter, an elected body charged with the task of framing a new
Constitution for India.

(b) Provision shall be made, as set out below, for the participation of the Indian States in
the constitution-making body.

(i) the right of any Province of British India that is* not prepared to accept the
new Constitution to retain its present constitutional position, provision being made for
its subsequent accession if it so decides.

With such non-acceding Provinces, should they so desire, His Majesty's Government will

be prepared to agree upon a new Constitution, giving them the same full status as Indian
Union, and arrived at by a procedure analogous to that here laid down.

(ii) the signing of a Treaty which shall be negotiated between His Majesty's
Government and the constitution-making body. This Treaty will cover all
necessary matters arising out of the complete transfer of responsibility from
British to Indian hands; it will make provision, in accordance with the
undertakings given by His Majesty's Government, for the protection of racial and
religious minorities , but will not impose any restriction on the power of the Indian
Union to decide in the future its relation to the other Member States of the British
Commonwealth.

Whether or not an Indian State elects to adhere to the Constitution, it will be necessary
to negotiate a revision of its Treaty arrangements, so far as this may be required in the
new situation.

(d) the constitution-making body shall be composed as follows, unless the leaders of
Indian opinion in the principal communities agree upon some other form before the end
of hostilities:

Immediately upon the result being known of the provincial elections which will
be necessary at the end of hostilities, the entire membership of the Lower Houses of
the Provincial Legislatures shall, as a single electoral college, proceed to the
election of the constitution-making body by the system of proportional
representation. This new body shall be in number about one-tenth of the number
of the Electoral College. Indian States shall be invited to appoint representatives in
the same proportion to their total population as in the case of the representatives
of British India as a whole, and with the same powers as the British Indian members.

(e) During the critical period which now faces India and until the new Constitution can
be framed His Majesty's Government must inevitably bear the responsibility for and retain
control and direction of the defence of India as part of their world war effort, but the task
of organising to the full the military, moral and material resources of India must be the
responsibility of the Government of India with the co-operation of the peoples of India.
His Majesty's Government desire and invite the immediate and effective participation of
the leaders of the principal sections of the Indian people in the counsels of their country,
of the Commonwealth and of the United Nations. Thus they will be enabled to give their
active and constructive help in the discharge of a tank which is vital and essential for the
future freedom of India.” 38

Dr. M. Moiz Khan

Assistant Professor

Dept, of History, University of Karachi

0322-2391591, moiz200@yahoo.com

38 Coupland, The Indian Problem, 336-337

Quit India Movement:

In reaction the Congress party said they do not accept the proposals offered by Sir
Stafford Cripps. They said Japan does not have any enmity with India. If British leave
India there is no threat of Japanese invasion. So British should give complete
independence and leave India as soon as possible. To further pressurize British the
Congress started a political movement “Quit India” movement. In this movement they
demanded British to immediately leave India and give it independence. Although this
movement was unable to achieve its objectives at that time but in the longer run it became
helpful to make British realize that now Indians are unwilling to allow them to manipulate

India. Dr. M. Moiz Khan

Assistant Professor

Dept, of History, University of Karachi

Divide and Quit India: 0322-2391591.moiz200@yahoo.com

On the other hand Muslim League was also not satisfied with the proposals of Sir
Stafford Cripps. They said his proposals do no talk about the creation of Pakistan. So
Muslim League cannot accept anything without Pakistan being offered in it. Muslims
were also suspicious of the Quit India Movement because it did not consider the demand
of Muslims of separate homeland. So Muslims League started “Divide and Quit India”
movement. Through this movement Muslims of sub-continent gave a clear message to
British and Congress that they wanted independence and separation from Hindus.

Gandhi Jinnah Talks 1944:

In 1944 Lord Wavell became Viceroy of India. He was man of moderate
approach towards the problems. To create the feeling to reconciliation and brotherhood
he released many political prisoners. Gandhi was also released during this time, who was
in jail due to his Quit India movement. After coming out of jail he immediately contacted
Jinnah to talk about the future of Muslims in India.

Jinnah agreed and the meetings were held at Jinnah’s home in Bombay. The first
thing Gandhi said was that Congress and Muslim League should come over their
differences and join hands to get rid of British. He said we need to work together to send
British back to England and then we will talk about the rights and problems of India after
we get Independence. He said this is our internal matter. Jinnah was staunch enough to
understand that it was a trap in which Congress wanted Muslims to fell. He knew it well
that once British leave India without deciding the issue of Muslim separate home land
Congress will do anything to suppress the voices of Muslims and will not give them their
rights. Jinnah refused this offer.

Secondly Gandhi tried to argue that Muslims of India do not have proper ground
to ask for a separate home land with in India. He said there are two types of Muslims in
India and both of them cannot ask for a separate home land. The first type he said are
those who have come from other parts of the world and stayed in India for example,
Arabs, Turks, Persian and Afghans. In this case if they want their homeland then they
should return back to their countries. Secondly there are those Muslims who are the

inhabitants of India and they converted their faith after Muslims came to India. In this
case India is their home land and they do not have any right to ask a separate homeland.
Jinnah dismissed his arguments on the basis of modern democratic principles.

Simla Conference 1945:

In 1945 the Viceroy of India Lord Wavell decided to conduct new elections. For
this purpose an administrative setup was required to conduct elections. To form this setup
he invited major political parties to Simla. He said that in the interim setup there would
be equal number of Muslims and Hindus.

To discuss the working and formulation of this interim setup Lord Waved invited
major political parties to Simla in June 1945. Everyone agreed to the principle of having
a council. However the discussion came on a standstill on the point of nominations. The
main issue was the nomination of Muslim members. Muslim League was claiming that
ad the Muslim members would be nominated by us. On the other hand Congress was
claiming that they have a large number of Muslim members and they represent Muslims
as wed, so Congress also has the right to nominate Muslim members.

Muslim League was in an awkward position because it cannot claim that they
represent Hindus as wed. However Jinnah gave one name of a Hindu member to
represent Muslim League. The dispute between the parties was not resolved and the
conference ended without achieving its goals.

Winter Elections 1945-46:

In 1945 British conducted general elections for new governments across India.
The results of these elections were like a new life for Muslim League. The league got
convincing victory across India. In central legislative assembly the League was
successful in winning ad Muslim seats which means it was a 100% victory for Muslim
league. In the provinces they were able to get 87% of total Muslims seats.

Before the elections Congress was confident that they would get a large number
of Muslim votes and that is why they used to portray themselves as the true
representatives of Muslims of India. These elections officially brought Muslim League
on the equal footings with Congress. Now Muslim League has earned the right to talk
on behalf of ad Muslims of India. This convincing victory also strengthened the demand
of Pakistan, because people voted for Muslim League which had a single demand of
Pakistan.

The results of winter elections also bring into prominence the leadership qualities
of Muhammad Ali Jinnah. Since the loss of the election in 1937 Jinnah had taken full
charge of Muslim League and had taken the League to new heights. The results of Winter
Elections were the confirmation of the fact that Jinnah’s leadership was very important
for the Muslims of sub-continent.

Dr. M. Moiz Khan

Assistant Professor

Dept, of History, University of Karachi
0322-2391591, moiz200@yahoo.com

Dr. M. Moiz Khan

Assistant Professor

Dept, of History, University of Karachi
0322-2391591, moiz200@yahoo.com

Comparison between the elections of 1937 and 1945:

It is very important here to understand the reasons for the outcomes of the
two mentioned elections and especially the reasons for the outcome for Muslim
League. In 1937 elections Muslim League lost elections heavily by the hands of
local Muslim political parties in the Muslim majority areas (as discussed earlier)
and the little success they were able to achieve was in the Muslim minority areas
or where Congress formed government.

i. Agenda :

The main agenda for which Muslim League contested elections for in 1937
was separate electorates and weightage. This agenda only attracted Muslims
living in the Hindu majority areas and did not appeal Muslims of Punjab, Sindh,
Bengal and NWFP that much.

On the other hand in 1945 elections ML had framed a new universal
agenda of a separate homeland for Muslims in sub-continent. This agenda was
adopted officially after the famous Pakistan resolution on 23 rd March 1940 in
Lahore. This time the Muslims of Punjab, Sindh, NWFP and Bengal saw their
interest in the sense that if ML succeeds then they will become independent from
Congress or Hindu domination.

Dr. M. Moiz Khan

Assistant Professor

Dept, of History, University of Karachi
0322-2391591. moiz200@yahoo.com

ii. Alliances:

In 1937 Muslim League contested elections individually. Other than
Congress which was a Hindu dominated political party ML also contested
elections against other Muslim dominated political parties for example, Sindh
United fron, Unionist party in Punjab etc.

In 1945 elections ML asked many Muslim dominated political parties not
to contest election against them to show Congress and British that Muslims of
India are one force. Jinnah was able to make them agree to this point.

Cabinet Mission Plan 1946:

Dr. M. Moiz Khan

Assistant Professor

Dept, of History, University of Karachi
0322-2391591, moiz200@yahoo.com

The winter elections proved that the division of India was now inevitable. The
success of Muslim League in the elections proved that Muslims all across India have
supported the demand of Pakistan. However the British gave it a last try to keep India
united. For this purpose three members of British Cabinet Stafford Cripps, A.V.
Alexander and Pathick Lawrence. Lord Wavell the Viceroy of India assisted them.

The Cabinet Mission Plan gave different proposals to Congress and Muslim
League and asked them to consider them to live together. They said that any solution
achieved now would be a temporary solution which would work for 10 years. During
these ten years the either parties or communities would give another a chance to prove

them. At the expiration of the time either parties or communities would be free to stay
together or to make their own country. Until then the country would work as a union.
Congress and Muslims League agreed to this basic principle.

The next step was the demarcation of the boundaries of Muslim areas and Hindu
areas for making different provinces. Wavell said Muslim League should take
Baluchistan, Sind, N.W.F.P and West Punjab and make western part of Muslims India.
Jinnah replied that Punjab cannot be accepted without its Eastern part. He said this way
the province would be very weak because most of the resources of Punjab are located
in Eastern part. That is why Jinnah refused this proposal.

Then in the second proposal British said that the province of Bengal would be
divided between Hindu and Muslim population. According to this plan most of the
important areas of Bengal were going to be given to Hindus including the most important
city of Calcutta. It is located on the bank of river Hugly and has served as the center of
trade of Bengal since British established it in 1690. This plan was also refused by Jinnah.
He said that this way the part which British are offering to Muslims will be handicapped.

Lastly British said that the Indian Territory should be divided in three parts. Part
‘A’ would include all the Muslim majority areas of West. Part ‘B’ would consist of all
the Hindu Majority areas in the central India and Part ‘C’ would have the Eastern Muslim
majority areas. Further it was decided that this setup will last for ten years and the parties
at the end of this period would decide about the future that they want to stay together or
they want to divide India. Jinnah agreed to this last proposal. Congress also agreed on
it.

Unfortunately Jawaharlal Nehru made a statement regarding this agreement. He
said that Congress would not feel bound by this agreement once British leave India. This
act of Nehru decided the fate of sub-continent. This meant that Muslims of India would
have to face Congress rigidity and atrocities which they faced during Congress rule of
1937-39. Consequently Muslim League backed out of the agreement and protested on the
attitude of Nehru. This way the final attempt to keep India united also failed. Abul Kalam
Azad rightly said in his book, ‘India Wins Freedom’ that “Jinnah did not make Pakistan
Nehru did”. Dr. M. Moiz Khan

Assistant Professor

Dept, of History, University of Karachi

Direct Action Day (16 th August 1946L 0322-2391591, moiz200@yahoo.com

After the failure of Cabinet Mission plan and rude attitude of Congress Jinnah and
Muslim League decided that there was need to take the struggle for Pakistan to the next
level. Jinnah stated that now it’s our turn to hold the pistol and dictate our terms. So it
was declared that on 16 th August 1946 a Direct Action Day would be conducted by
Muslim League across sub-continent in which Muslims where ever they live would come
out on streets to protest.

This turned to be a very dangerous decision. Riots erupted across India and only
in Calcutta around 4000 people lost their lives. These were the largest riots before 1947.
Although many lives were lost but it became evident that Muslims cannot be ignored and
their demands are serious.

3rd June plan 1947 and Independence Act 1947:

In the first quarter of 1 947Lord Atlee the new prime minister of England declared
that British will leave sub-continent by June 1948. Till then the British government will
make the necessary arrangements to accommodate the transfer of power to the local
people.

He called back Lord Wavell and sent Lord Mountbatten as new viceroy of India.
The main task of him was to arrange the transfer and divide the assets, resources and land
between the two future parts of Indian sub-continent. He arrived in India in March 1947.

On 3rd June Lord Mountbatten came up with a plan of division of sub-continent.
In it he sealed the fate of the future state of Pakistan. This plan became famous as 3rd
June Plan. Some salient features of this plan are as under:

1. The British will give independence to India on 15 th August 1947.

2. The assets between Pakistan and India would be divided on the ratio of
5/17.

3. Sind, Baluchistan and N.W.F.P would be given to Pakistan completely if their
people confirm it and give a vote for Pakistan.

4. The provinces of Punjab and Bengal would be divided because they
have mix population. According to a formula the Muslim majority
districts would become part of Pakistan and non-Muslim majority districts
would become part of India.

5. To decide the boundaries between Pakistan and India a commission was
setup and Cyril Radcliff became its chairman. He had hardly spent any time
in India so it was clear that such a man would not be able to deliver. He
used to take direct dictation from the viceroy over the issue of division of
land. There were two sub-committee of this commission one for Punjab and
one for Bengal. (The final report of this commission came out on 16 th
August 1947, which means two days after the independence of Pakistan.
This contributed a lot in the violence during the migration after
independence, because the people living in areas close to present Pakistan
thought their area would be part of Pakistan).

6. All the independent states in sub-continent were given the choice to decide
on their own that which country would they accede to or they want to remain
independent.

Dr. M. Moiz Khan

Assistant Professor

Dept, of History, University of Karachi

0322-2391591, moiz200@yahoo.com

Different movements

1. Swadeshi Movement:

In this movement Congress asked their fellow Indians Boycott all the British goods and buy
only Indian products. This movement was launched during the protests for reversal of Partition
of Bengal by Congress. Its aim was to frustrate British financially and to make them except
Congress demand regarding the partition.

Dr. M. Moiz Khan

Assistant Professor

Dept, of History, University of Karachi
0322-2391591, moiz200@yahoo.com

2. Civil Disobedience Movement:

This movement is about not following the laws of the country and not paying taxes and bills to
government. This movement has been used many times by Congress and Gandhi against
British.

3. Non-Cooperation Movement:

In this movement the participants do not cooperate with the government regarding their duties
and create problems for them. Congress used this movement at different occasions however it
became famous during Khilafat Movement.

4. Sawrai:

It means self-rule. It was demanded by Congress and later by Muslim League.

5. Satyagraha:

It is Hindi word which means “truth-force”. There were many angles to this idea and
movement. Through this Gandhi wanted to cultivate the ideas of non-violence and simple

living into the hearts of common Indians. It was also considered as a new method of fighting

against British colonialism

Dr. M. Moiz Khan

Assistant Professor

Dept, of History, University of Karachi
0322-2391591, moiz200@yahoo.com

Allama Iqbal, born (November 9, 1877 Sialkot - death Lahore April 21, 1938)

Chaudhry Rehmat Ali. Born in Balachaur in Hoshiarp District of Punjab
(November 16, 1897-February3, 1951

Jawaharlal Nehru. Born Nov. 14, 1889, Allahabad, India died May 27, 1964,
New Delhi. First prime minister of independent India from 1947 till 1964.

Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi. Born Oct. 2, 1869, Porbandar, India died
Jan. 30, 1948, Delhi. Came to India in 1914.

Dr. M. Moiz Khan

Muhammad Ali Jauhar Assistant Professor

Dept, of History, University of Karachi
0322-2391591, moiz200@yahoo.com

Muhammad Ali Jinnah. Born Dec. 25, 1876, Karachi, India [now in Pakistan]
died Sept. 11, 1948, Karachi

Shuakat Ali Jauhar

Sir Agha Khan III Also known as Sultan Sir Mohammed Shah was born
November 2, 1877, Karachi, India and died in July 11, 1957, Versoix,
Switzerland. He became the Imam in 1885 after the death of his father.

Motilal Nehru

Justice Ameer Ali

Sir Agha Khan III

Liaqaut Ali Khan

Abul Kalam Azad, Maulana

Sir Shafi

Khan Sahab, Dr.
Sikandar Hayat Khan
Gangadhar Tilak

Dr. M. Moiz Khan

Assistant Professor

Dept, of History, University of Karachi
0322-2391591, moiz200@yahoo.com

Sarojni Naido

Part II

1947 till Now

Chapter 1: Frist eleven Year, 1947-1958

1.1 Early Problems faced by Pakistan, caused by India

1.1.1 Financial Assets

1.1.2 Refugee Problem

1.1.3 Military Assets

1.1.4 Accession of Independent states

1.1.4.1 Kashmir
1.1.4.2Junagarh

1.1.4.2 Hyderabad Deccan

1.1.5 Canal Water Dispute

Dr. M. Moiz Khan

Assistant Professor

Dept, of History, University of Karachi
0322-2391591, moiz200@yahoo.com

1.2 Early problems due to internal issues, which still exists

Source: G. Allana, Pakistan Movement Historical Documents (Karachi: Department of International
Relations, University of Karachi, nd [1969]), pp. 407-411. Paragraph numbers in double brackets have been
added by FWP for classroom use; punctuation has been slightly adjusted for clarity. Editorial comments in
square brackets have been added by FWP.

Muhammad Ali Jinnah's first Presidential Address to the Constituent Assembly of Pakistan (August
11 , 1947 )

Mr. President, Ladies and Gentlemen!

[[1]] I cordially thank you, with the utmost sincerity, for the honour you have conferred upon me -- the
greatest honour that is possible for this Sovereign Assembly to confer — by electing me as your first
President. I also thank those leaders who have spoken in appreciation of my services and [thank them for]
their personal references to me. I sincerely hope that with your support and your co-operation we shall make
this Constituent Assembly an example to the world. The Constituent Assembly has got two main functions
to perform. The first is the very onerous and responsible task of framing the future constitution of Pakistan
and the second of functioning as a full and complete sovereign body as the Federal Legislature of Pakistan.
We have to do the best we can in adopting a provisional constitution for the Federal Legislature of Pakistan.
You know really that not only we ourselves are wondering but, I think, the whole world is wondering at this
unprecedented cyclonic revolution which has brought about the plan of creating and establishing two
independent Sovereign Dominions in this sub-continent. As it is, it has been unprecedented; there is no
parallel in the history of the world. This mighty sub-continent with all kinds of inhabitants has been brought
under a plan which is titanic, unknown, unparalleled. And what is very important with regard to it is that we
have achieved it peacefully and by means of an evolution of the greatest possible character.

[[2]] Dealing with our first function in this Assembly, I cannot make any well-considered pronouncement at
this moment, but I shall say a few things as they occur to me. The first and the foremost thing that I would
like to emphasize is this: remember that you are now a Sovereign Legislative body and you have got all the
powers. It therefore places on you the gravest responsibility as to how you should take your decisions. The
first observation that I would like to make is this: You will no doubt agree with me that the first duty of a
government is to maintain law and order, so that the life, property and religious beliefs of its subjects are
fully protected by the State.

[[3]] The second thing that occurs to me is this: One of the biggest curses from which India is suffering — I
do not say that other countries are free from it, but I think our condition is much worse -- is bribery and
corruption. That really is a poison. We must put that down with an iron hand, and I hope that you will take
adequate measures as soon as it is possible for this Assembly to do so.

[[4]] Black-marketing is another curse. Well, I know that black-marketeers are frequently caught and
punished. Judicial sentences are passed, or sometimes fines only are imposed. Now you have to tackle this
monster, which today is a colossal crime against society, in our distressed conditions, when we constantly
face shortage of food and other essential commodities of life. A citizen who does black-marketing commits,
I think, a greater crime than the biggest and most grievous of crimes. These black-marketeers are really
knowing, intelligent, and ordinarily responsible people, and when they indulge in black-marketing, I think
they ought to be very severely punished, because they undermine the entire system of control and regulation
of foodstuffs and essential commodities, and cause wholesale starvation and want and even death.

[[5]] The next thing that strikes me is this: Here again it is a legacy which has been passed on to us. Along
with many other things, good and bad, has arrived this great evil -- the evil of nepotism and jobbery. I want
to make it quite clear that I shall never tolerate any kind of jobbery [=corrupt employment practices],
nepotism, or any any influence directly or indirectly brought to bear upon me. Whenever I will find that such
a practice

is in vogue or is continuing anywhere, low or high, I shall certainly not countenance it.

[[6]] I know there are people who do not quite agree with the division of India and the partition of the Punjab
and Bengal. Much has been said against it, but now that it has been accepted, it is the duty of every one of
us to loyally abide by it and honourably act according to the agreement which is now final and binding on
all. But you must remember, as I have said, that this mighty revolution that has taken place is unprecedented.
One can quite understand the feeling that exists between the two communities wherever one community is
in majority and the other is in minority. But the question is, whether it was possible or practicable to act
otherwise than what has been done. A division had to take place. On both sides, in Hindustan and Pakistan,
there are sections of people who may not agree with it, who may not like it; but in my judgement there was
no other solution, and I am sure future history will record its verdict in favour of it. And what is more, it will
be proved by actual experience as we go on that that was the only solution of India's constitutional problem.
Any idea of a united India could never have worked, and in my judgement it would have led us to terrific
disaster. Maybe that view is correct; maybe it is not; that remains to be seen. All the same, in this division it
was impossible to avoid the question of minorities being in one Dominion or the other. Now that was
unavoidable. There is no other solution. Now what shall we do? Now, if we want to make this great State of
Pakistan happy and prosperous, we should wholly and solely concentrate on the well-being of the people,
and especially of the masses and the poor. If you will work in co-operation, forgetting the past, burying the
hatchet, you are bound to succeed. If you change your past and work together in a spirit that every one of
you, no matter to what community he belongs, no matter what relations he had with you in the past, no matter
what is his colour, caste, or creed, is first, second, and last a citizen of this State with equal rights, privileges,
and obligations, there will be no end to the progress you will make.

[[7]] I cannot emphasize it too much. We should begin to work in that spirit, and in course of time all these
angularities of the majority and minority communities, the Hindu community and the Muslim community --
because even as regards Muslims you have Pathans, Punjabis, Shias, Sunnis and so on, and among the Hindus
you have Brahmins, Vashnavas, Khatris, also Bengalees, Madrasis and so on — will vanish. Indeed if you
ask me, this has been the biggest hindrance in the way of India to attain the freedom and independence, and
but for this we would have been free people long ago. No power can hold another nation, and specially a
nation of 400 million souls, in subjection; nobody could have conquered you, and even if it had happened,
nobody could have continued its hold on you for any length of time, but for this. Therefore, we must learn a
lesson from this. You are free; you are free to go to your temples, you are free to go to your mosques or to
any other place or worship in this State of Pakistan. You may belong to any religion or caste or creed -- that
has nothing to do with the business of the State. As you know, history shows that in England conditions,
some time ago, were much worse than those prevailing in India today. The Roman Catholics and the
Protestants persecuted each other. Even now there are some States in existence where there are
discriminations made and bars imposed against a particular class. Thank God, we are not starting in those
days. We are starting in the days where there is no discrimination, no distinction between one community
and another, no discrimination between one caste or creed and another. We are starting with this fundamental
principle: that we are all citizens, and equal citizens, of one State. The people of England in [the] course of
time had to face the realities of the situation, and had to discharge the responsibilities and burdens placed
upon them by the government of their country; and they went through that fire step by step. Today, you
might say with justice that Roman Catholics and Protestants do not exist; what exists now is that every man
is a citizen, an equal citizen of Great Britain, and they are all members of the Nation.

[[8]] Now I think we should keep that in front of us as our ideal, and you will find that in course of time
Hindus would cease to be Hindus, and Muslims would cease to be Muslims, not in the religious sense,
because that is the personal faith of each individual, but in the political sense as citizens of the State.

[[9]] Well, gentlemen, I do not wish to take up any more of your time; and thank you again for the honour
you have done to me. I shall always be guided by the principles of justice and fair play without any, as is put
in the political language, prejudice or ill-will; in other words, partiality or favouritism. My guiding principle
will be justice and complete impartiality, and I am sure that with your support and co-operation, I can look
forward to Pakistan becoming one of the greatest Nations of the world.

[[10]] I have received a message from the United States of America addressed to me. It reads:

I have the honour to communicate to you, in Your Excellency's capacity as President of the Constituent
Assembly of Pakistan, the following message which I have just received from the Secretary of State of the
United States:

On the occasion of the first meeting of the Constituent Assembly for Pakistan, I extend to you and to the
members of the Assembly, the best wishes of the Government and the people of the United States for the
successful conclusion of the great work you are about to undertake.

Pakistan when came into being faced many problems. First of all it was a country
which was based over an Ideology. Secondly the country from which Pakistan was made
did not want Pakistan to remain independent. Then finally no other country wanted
Pakistan to be made although other than Afghanistan every other country accepted
Pakistan in United Nations.

The government of Pakistan had a mammoth task of making Pakistan acceptable in
the world and to survive against all odds. Some early problem which Pakistan faced in

its early years of Independence is as under: - r~T , . , . .

: : 1 Dr. M. Moiz Khan

Assistant Professor

Dept, of History, University of Karachi
0322-2391591, moiz200@yahoo.com

1. Financial Assets: -

Pakistan was allotted 750 million Rs. according to partition plan. India as a first
installment paid 200 million Rs. Then India refused to pay the further 550 million Rs. to
Pakistan. The case then was taken up by Gandhi who pressed on the fact that although
Congress has always worked against the creation of Pakistan but now Pakistan has
become a reality so we should accept it and pay the due share to Pakistan. He went on a
hunger strike for the right of Pakistan to get money. As a result the Government of India
paid another 500 million Rs. to Pakistan. India has not paid the remaining 50 million Rs.
to Pakistan.

2. Refugee problem:

The roots of refugee problem can be found in the 3rd June plan. In this plan the
last Viceroy to India Lord Mount Batten lessened the time allowed by Lord Attlee (the
prime Minster of England) by almost a year. Lord Attlee said in his speech in House of
Commons the British will leave India by June 1948 and in 3rd June plan the Viceroy
declared that partition would take place on 15 August, 1947.This proves that the Viceroy
totally ignored the Communal tension and the dispute over land distribution between
Muslim League and Congress.

The main cause of the refugee problem was Radcliff Awards. It was decided that
Pakistan would get Sind, Baluchistan, N.W.F.P, East Bengal and West Punjab. Muslims
had full majority in all provinces other than Punjab and Bengal where they had more than
50% population but there were other communities as well. According to the original plan
it was decided that the provinces of Punjab and Bengal would be divided according to
the population distribution. Means the area which have Muslim majority would be given
to Pakistan and the areas which have non-Muslim majority would be given to India.

The people living in Punjab were sure that their area would be included in Pakistan,
so they did not try to migrate before 14th August. The problem started when on 16th
August Radcliff Awards were announced. According to it many districts of Punjab which
had Muslim majority, like, Gurdaspur, Firozpur, Amritsar etc, were included in Indian
territories. When Muslims of these areas came to know about this foul play by the
Viceroy they left everything in India and tried to reach Pakistan. Many of them were

killed on the way and those who reached Pakistan had no belongings.

To counter the problem Jinnah set up a “Quaid-e-Azam Refugee relief fund” and
asked people to donate money in the fund to help the refugees. Then he moved his
headquarters from Karachi to Lahore for some time to counter the problem and have a
close eye on the relief work. Dr. M. Moiz Khan

Assistant Professor

Dept, of History, University of Karachi

3. Military assets: 0322 - 2391591 ,moiz 200 @yahoo.com

All army officers were given the choice to join any country after the
Independence. Other physical assets were to be divided according to 5/17 ratio between
Pakistan and India.

The only problem which Pakistan faced was that there were 16 ordnance factories
in undivided India unfortunately for Pakistan all of them were located in divided India.
So India agreed to set up an ordinance factory in Paki stan. Wah ordinance factory wa s
established with the help of India. Dr. M. Moiz Khan

Assistant Professor

Dept, of History, University of Karachi

4. Accession of Independent states 0322 - 2391591 , moiz 200 @yahoo.com

There were 562 independent states in Sub-continent at the time of partition. British
gave two choices to them, i) either to remain independent or ii) to join any country they
would like to. Out of these 562 independent states only 14 were within the boundaries of
Pakistan. The problem of accession was with only 3 of them namely Kashmir, Junagarh
and Hyderabad Deccan.

Kashmir, Dir, Sawat, Lasbelah, Bhawalpur, Khairpur, Kalat,

i. Kashmir:

Kashmir was sold to the Dogra family by British in middle of the 19 th century.
Since then they were ruling over it. The majority of its population, which was Muslim,
was not satisfied with their rulers. At the time of Independence Kashmir had the status of
Independent state, which had the right to accede to any country. The ruler of Kashmir at
the time Hari Singh Dogra wanted to accede to India, but the 75% Muslim population
wanted to accede to Pakistan.

The clash between the ruler and the ruled resulted in violence. Hari Singh ordered
the killing of anyone who was against him. In this situation Muslims living in Pakistan
on the bordering areas of Kashmir attacked Kashmir to save their fellow Muslims. Hari
Singh in reply asked for the help from India. Lord Mount Batten was the Governor
General of India at the time; he immediately sent Indian troops into Kashmir. Indian
army stopped the advances of liberation army. Since that day Indian army has occupied
Kashmir and refuse to leave and claim that Kashmir is part of India.

ii. Junagarh:

It is a maritime state which does not have a land link with Pakistan. It can be
reached from Pakistan through sea. The majority of the population in the state was Hindu
but the ruler was Muslim who wanted to accede to Pakistan. Indian government wanted

it to accede to India. Due to this tussle the ruler and the population was in dilemma of
either joining any country or to remain independent. Finally a large force of liberation
army entered into the borders of Junagarh and forcefully took it from the ruler.

iii. Hyderabad Deccan:

The case of Hyderabad was like Junagarh. The population was Hindu majority but
the ruler was Muslim. However there was a difference in the location of this area.
Hyderabad is situated in the South of India and it is surrounded by Indian Territory from
all sides. The ruler although wanted to join Pakistan initially but realizing the
geographical handicap he decided to remain independent. The Government of India
cannot allow the most powerful and the richest independent state to remain independent.
Indian forces also entered into Hyderabad and took the area by force.

5 Canal Water dispute:

Pakistan is an agricultural economy. Still today Pakistan earns most of it foreign
exchange through agro based industry and exports. For agriculture and second most
important element after land is water. Fortunately Pakistan is blessed with every efficient
river system. Without rivers Pakistan could not progress in any field.

India took advantage of this weakness of Pakistan immediately after
independence. The five major rivers which bring water into Pakistan have their headwork
in Kashmir and India. Indus, Jhelum and Chenab have their sources in Kashmir and Ravi,
Sutlej and Beas have their source in Northern India. India stopped the water of these rivers.
Pakistan objected on it. India said these rivers start from Indian Territory that’s why we
have the right to use their water.

Pakistan argued that these rivers should be allowed to flow on their natural course
which means allowing them to flow through Pakistan. However the dispute took more than
12 years to be solved. It was finally resolved in 1960 that the three Eastern Rivers Indus,
Jhelum and Chenab would be given to Pakistan and Ravi, Sutlej and Beas would go to
India. World Bank played the role of arbitrator in this treaty and it is known as Indus
Basin Treaty.

The politics of Pakistan from 1947 till 1958:

Pakistan after coming into being went through a very ruthless phase of political
chaos. After the death of Jinnah there was a vacuum of leadership, although Rana Liaquat
Ali Khan was the best person to lead the party and the country however there were many
opportunists who were waiting for any loop hole to take advantage of it in their own favor. It
was clear that there was a lack to capable politicians to take control of all important portfolios
of Government. Due to this paucity the Prime Minister had to rely on bureaucrats to fill the
slots. In the early governments the administration relied heavily on bureaucrats and that became
a weakness of politicians and strength of civil servants.

Liaquat Ali Khan governed the government to best of his abilities from 1947 till his
death in assassination on 16 th October 1951. During these four years we do not find any
evidences that he worked for his own selfish goals and did not give his 100% to his beloved
country. After his sad demise again there was a split between the leadership of Muslim League
that who should govern the country. Finally the finance minister Mlik Ghulam Muhammad
convinced Governor General Khawaja Nazim ud Din to step down from his post and to take
up the post of Prime Minister because the work started by Rana Liaquat can be best continued
by the Khawaja Nazim because of his close working relations with the former Prime Minister.

Malik Ghulam Muhammad was a bureaucrat and did not have his roots in people and
therefore did care about the will of people. He later fully utilized powers vested in the office
of Governor General. He dismissed Khawaja Nazim Uddin in 1953 and later dismissed a
Constituent Assembly in 1954. He brought Muhammad Ali Bogra as Prime Minister in place
of Khawaja Nazim, who was another bureaucrat. So after 1953 both major governing offices
were occupied by bureaucrats without the process of elections.

Rise of Bureaucracy and destruction of democracy in Pakistan ;

At the time of independacne Pakistan lacked people of talent and skills who could
take care of the affairs of the state. The ability of Politicians to take control of all state
affairs during initial years was compromised by the frictions between them and their
ambitions. There was a difference between bureacrates and politicians of that time. When
Pakistan became independent both bureacrats and politicians were trained and worked in
united India of preindependance. Bureaucrats .

Era of Ayub Khan 1958-1969:

Ayub Khan became first chief of army staff from Pakistan. He replaced General
Douglas in 1951 when he was appointed as the Chief of Army Staff by Liaquat Ali Khan.
Then he was appointed as the defense minister of Pakistan in 1953 by the Prime Minister
Muhammad Ali Bogra when there was a political crisis in the country. Since then army
became a very integral part of government. The difference amongst the political leader
ship further gave way to the military intervention in political matters. After the
proclamation of martial law by Iskandar Mirza on 7th October 1958 Ayub Khan saw a
greater role for himself and the army in politics of the country. He seized power for himself

two weeks later and threw Iskander Mirza out of Government.

After assuming full power for himself he needed to legitimize his rule and stay in
power. So he started the system of Basic Democracies. In first stage he divided the country
into 80000 administrative units or Basic Democracies. Then he raised the number to
120000. After the elections of these basic democracies Ayub Khan took the vote of
confidence from the newly elected Basic Democrats. He became second President of
Pakistan in 1960. His rule over Pakistan was a long rule of 11 years. During this time he
introduced many new policies which are discussed as under: Dr. M. MoizKhan

Assistant Professor

Dept, of History, University of Karachi

1. Early career and rise to power 0322 - 2391591 , moiz200@yahoo.com

Ayub Khan was born in a small village Rihana, an unknown place near Hasan
Abdal in modern day KPK, Pakistan on May 14, 1907. He was born in a low income
house hold and his father was a Subedar Major (a non-commissioned rank) in the
British Indian army. His father from the very beginning had the desire of sending
his son to a military and unlike himself, his son would become a commissioned
officer.

Ayub Khan received his military education from one of the best military schools
Sandhurst.

He joined British Indian Army and after the independence of Pakistan
became the first Muslim Pakistani Chief of Army Staff in 1951, by the hands of
Prime Minister Liaquat Ali Khan. He was later given the portfolio of Defence
minister by Governor General Malik Ghulam Mohammad in 1954.

Iskander Mirza proclaimed martial law on October 7, 1958 and appointed
General Ayub Khan as the Chief Martial Law Administrator and Prime Minister.
On 27 th same month he ousted Iskander Mirza and took charge of the country as
President and appointed General Musa as the new Chief of Army Staff.

2 .

any potential opposition that could challenge his newly formed administration.
There were only two major sections of the society who could post any kind of
resistance to him, politicians and bureaucrats. Bureaucrats were tamed by
introducing a law known as PODO (Public Office Disqualification Order). It
described that any public servant would be discharged from service if found guilty
of corruption, nepotism or abuse of power.

For politicians he made a law EBDO (Elective Body Disqualification Order)
August 1959. According to which any elected office holder if found guilty would
be debarred from politics till 31 December 1966. The use of this law was ruthless.
Ayub EBDOed all possible political leader. Even the person who presented Lahore
Resolution in 1940, A. K. Fazlul Haq.

These two laws sound appropriate, however the implementation of these
laws was based upon silencing the opposition rather than achieving their actual

Silencing the opposition (EBDO & PODO)

Dr. M. Moiz Khan

Assistant Professor

Dept, of History, University of Karachi
0322-2391591, moiz200@yahoo.com

The foremost thing for Ayub Khan after taking over power was to silence

targets.

3. Legalizing his rule (Basic Democracies)

After acquiring the rule and silencing the opposition Ayub Khan took the
next logical step in terms of military takeover, legitimizing his rule. Although since
independence democracy has not been able to prevail however the power struggle
was in between politicians and bureaucrats, both civilians. This was the first time
army has intervened directly.

Military rule is always considered as illegitimate. To have acceptability in home
and in international arena Ayub Khan had to depict himself as publically accepted
and elected leader. Ayub did not belong not any political party thus could not
conduct democratic elections. For this purpose he chose to use indirect way of
public approval.

He introduced Basic Democracies in 1960. The mandate of to be elected member
was to deal with the municipal services, such as taking care of the roads, water
supply, sewerage, basic health facilities, local education etc. The Basic
Democracies order was passed in 1959 and the elections were conducted in January
1960. From all over Pakistan 80000 Basic Democrats were elected. Soon after their
election the purpose of the exercise was revealed by the president when they were
asked in an ambiguous referendum question about the continuity of Ayub Khan’s
presidency. The results were, 80,000 Basic Democrats, 75,283 affirmed their
support. Ayub Khan proclaimed himself as the elected president of the country.

4. Prolonging his rule (Constitution of 1962)

5. Agricultural Policy (Green Revolution)

6. Industrial Policy (Privatization)

7. Foreign Policy

8. Decline

Dr. M. Moiz Khan

Assistant Professor

Dept, of History, University of Karachi
0322-2391591, moiz200@yahoo.com

Consolidating his rule and controlling opposition:

Ayub Khan after taking powers in his hands from Iskander Mirza needed to
device mechanism to control opposition from two sections of the society,
bureaucracy and politicians. For both of the he crafted laws which seemed need of
the time for Pakistan however they were used as a political device in his hands. He
put a ban on political parties arrested G. M Syed and Abdul Ghaffar Khan. In March
1959 Ayub introduced Public Office Disqualification Order (PODO)

Constitutional reforms:

After becoming president the highest priority was given to the constitutional
problem. With the proclamation of Martial Law in 1958 the constitution of 1956 was
abrogated so there was a need for a new constitution. For this purpose he ordered the

formation of a commission. The composition of this commission was retired chief justice
of Supreme Court who would work as the chairman of this commission, two retired judges,
a lawyer, a mill owner, a business man, a land lord and a member from minorities. This
composition gives the hint about the final product and the intentions of Ayub Khan that
what sort of government and constitution he wanted to create. There was no representation
of majority of the people for example common man, laborers, farmers etc.

This commission prepared a detailed questionnaire for understanding the views of
people. This questionnaire was produce in the quantity of 28000 copies. Other than this
exercise the commission conducted 565 interviews of people belonging to different walks
of life. Many people were apprehensive about the wishes of Ayub Khan. Finally the report
of the commission came out and it met the decided fate. It was not the commission which
was running the show it was Ayub Khan. The report said the government should be
formed on the model of USA with directly elected President and check and balance of
Legislative, Executive and Judiciary. Ayub was willing to adopt it but with his own
interpretation which says that the executive should not have any checks but other two
pillars needs its authentication. “Whatever the shortcomings of the commission’s
proposals, their chief merit was the concern for the rehabilitation of democratic process,
and whatever merit the president saw in his own proposal, their main was to provide a
constitutional facade for a dictatorial design”. 1

Finally the constitution came out in 1962. Some salient features of this constitution
are as under;

i. The name of the country would be the Republic of Pakistan. (In the last
constitution it was Islamic Republic of Pakistan)

ii. The country would be presidential form of government and president would be
directly elected.

iii. All the executive authority would be exercised by President.

iv. President will select Prime Minister from the national assembly.

v. All the laws passed by the parliament will be subject to the presidential consent. If
the president disagrees with any particular legislation he would send it back to the
parliament. (If the parliament still does not make any changes then finally the
president has the power to send parliamentarians to home by dissolving the
assembly).

vi. President will appoint governors in all the provinces. These Governors were giver
extra powers of dissolving the provincial assemblies on the order of the President.

Agricultural reforms:

Ayub Khan paid a lot of attention towards agricultural potential of Pakistan. He
knew that it is the back bone of Pakistan and it is the only quick way to boost the economy
of Pakistan. In longer run reforms in other sectors like industry and export were needed
for stability.

Dr. M. Moiz Khan

Assistant Professor

Dept, of History, University of Karachi
0322-2391591, moiz200@yahoo.com

1. He ordered the import of Highly Yielding variety of seed. Through these seeds
farmers can get extra yield from the same land during the same amount of time. This way
the annual produce of any particular crop can increase. The main areas in which HYVs
helped were exports. The HYVs of particular crops like cotton, wheat, rice and sugarcane
contributed a lot in the economy. Even today rice and cotton are the main exports of
Pakistan.

2. The mechanization process also started during his rule. Through it the efficiency
of work increased and finally it translated into increase in annual growth. This
advancement helped in increasing the cultivatable land. Earlier agricultural activity
needed lots of labor now machines can do work of many people at one time.

3. Another important aspect of agriculture is fertilizers. Chemical fertilizers are
crucial for the agricultural activity of any country especially in today’s world when the
demand is increasing day by day and the land is continuously used. Land starts losing its
fertility after some time for which some months of gap is required. However countries
like Pakistan which only depend on agriculture cannot afford any break. In this situation
chemical fertilizers provide strength to the land and soil. Ayub Khan imported and
introduced many chemical fertilizers in Pakistan and he also supported the growth of
chemical fertilizer industry.

4. He also introduced land reforms. He limited the land holding of irrigated and
non-irrigated land. Through this way his target was to distribute land amongst the people
of Pakistan. Theoretically this was supposed to increase the annual production of crops
because large land holding means unutilized land. The big land lords may not need to
cultivate all the land they have because their life style can be supported easily by much
less cultivation. This unutilized land may not affect the land lord but it is bound to affect
the country because the annual production cannot be maximum according to the potential
of the country. By distributing it in many owners the government wanted to make sure
that the land is properly used.

Dr. M. Moiz Khan

Assistant Professor

Dept, of History, University of Karachi

0322-2391591. moiz200@yahoo.com

Industrial Reforms:

The process of industrialization started by Ayub Khan was very beneficial to the
economy of Pakistan. He invited investments from across the world and convinced the
local investors to invest in the country. He assured them that their investments would be
safe and profitable. The industrial growth indicators during his time were favorable.

He established an oil refinery in Karachi in 1962. Oil refinery is a very important
feature of industrialization. More industries means rise in the demand of electricity and
the major source of electricity in Pakistan is fossil fuel. Earlier Pakistan was importing
refined oil which costs much more than crude oil. In addition, by refining the crude oil
many by products are also getable which are used for other purposes.

He started a very important program Regional Cooperation for Development
(RCD) with Iran and Turkey. This was a very important program which had the potential
of pulling Pakistan out of the list of Third World Countries. This was a very well thought
out plan that could benefit all the three partners. Pakistan shares 450, miles border with
Iran in South West and Iran shares approximately 200 mile long border with Turkey in
North West. The program suggested road and railways links from Pakistan till Turkey
passing through Iran.

To promote exports he gave many incentives to exporters. He introduced a scheme
called Bonus Export Scheme. Any exporter who met the targets set by the government
was given extra incentives.

Although all of these reforms resulted in record high growth rate of Pakistan but
created another problem. The main criticism of his industrialization policy was that it
favored few big business families rather than the whole population. 22 business families
controlled around 80% of all the industries of Pakistan and 60% of all the banking and
insurance business. Although the growth rate of Pakistan was very high the beneficiaries
of this growth and development were few and the distribution of wealth or money was
vertical rather than horizontal. Secondly all of these families were located in West

Pakistan. Dr. M. Moiz Khan

Assistant Professor

Dept, of History, University of Karachi

Downfall of Ayub Khan: 0322-2391591.moiz200@yahoo.com

The downfall of Ayub Khan was not sudden it took some years. We can say that
his decline started after 1965. Pakistan entered into war with India in September the same
year. This war was an adventure that the people and government of Pakistan could not
afford at that time. The war lasted less than a month and went into the favor of India. Both
countries signed a peace treaty with the help of Russia in Tashkent. Although Ayub Khan
told the people that it was great victory of Pakistan but the reality was something else.

Ayub Khan blamed the war and the treaty on his foreign minister Zulfiqar Ali
Bhutto and asked him to leave his cabinet in July 1966. Bhutto in retaliation started his
own political party Pakistan People’s Party and became the center of the opposition
against Ayub Khan.

The presidential elections also earned him a bad name. The presidential candidate
against him was Fatima Jinnah and the people who were against him saw a savior in the
form of Ms. Fatima. She also had lots of popularity and there was a chance that she could

surprise every one and sweep the polls. The results showed that Ayub Khan was very
popular with the people and they support him to become the president again. This result
was not accepted by people. The opposition parties protested and said that Ayub Khan has
used his official powers to turn the elections in his favor.

The political agitation against Ayub got strong during 1968. He was not a man
who would leave the power easily or unless he tries out all the options he had. He arrested
thousands of people. He also ordered the arrest of political leader ship including Bhutto.
The agitation against him rather than slowing down paced up. In February 1969 he
released many political prisoners and offered the opposition to reconcile the difference
but it was too little too late. Finally in March 1969 he decided to leave power and step
down as president. He did not go silently; he proclaimed Martial Law once again in the
country and gave all the powers to the Chief of Army Staff General Yahiya Khan.

Dr. M. Moiz Khan

Assistant Professor

Dept, of History, University of Karachi
0322-2391591, moiz200@yahoo.com

The partition of Pakistan and creation of Bangladesh
1971:

Pakistan was created on 14 August 1947 and as a new country it was a different
example in front of the world. First of all it was divided into two part and these two parts
were separated from each other by enemy territory. Furthermore there were many other
differences between the two parts of Pakistan.

Pakistan was created on the basis of an ideology. However many scholars believe
that we lost this ideology when we lost more than half of our population in 1971. There
are many reasons behind the separation of East Pakistan and creation of Bangladesh. Even
at the time of independence many political leaders had argued that should Bengal become
a part of Pakistan or should it be made a separate Muslim country like Pakistan?
Following are some reasons behind the division of Pakistan and creation of Bangladesh;

Population distribution:

At the time of independence Pakistan had around 70 million people in both parts
of the country. Out of them more than 55% were living in East Bengal. Pakistan had 5
provinces in total at that time. The remaining 45% population was living in the other
four provinces. Then all the people living in Bengal were Bengalis. On the other hand the
remaining population was divided into four major types of people and multiple sub
groups. The first problem which arose between the people of East Bengal and other
Pakistanis was on the issue of national language. Urdu was chosen as the national
language and on the contrary Bengalis were asking the government to make Bengali the
national language of Pakistan. This issue was resolved in the first constitution when both
languages were made the national languages under the constitution of 1956.

Then their majority was falsely decreased and was brought to the level of West
Pakistan. This was done in 1955 when parity formula or one unit plan was introduced. In
it all the provinces in Western Pakistan were united together to form one province called
West Pakistan. The main purpose of this plan was to bring East Bengal on the equal
level and to deny the majority it had. Although this plan was implemented but the people
of East Pakistan or Bengal never forgot the mistreatment of the ruling elite.

Representation in army:

Pakistan army had a very few people from East Bengal. More than 85% of Pakistan
army consisted on the people from two provinces Punjab and N.W.F.P. People of Bengal
hardly had any respectable share in national army. This led to the rise of sense of
deprivation in the hearts and minds of the people of East Bengal. After eleven years of
the establishment of Pakistan martial law regime took over the country. Again like first
11 years Bengalis had no role to play in the new politics of Pakistan because of their
representation in the army.

Dr. M. Moiz Khan

Assistant Professor

Dept, of History, University of Karachi
0322-2391591, moiz200@yahoo.com

The Military Elite in Pakistan, 1955

East Bengal

West Pakistan

Lt-General

Major-General

Brigadier

Colonel

Lt-Colonel

198

Major

590

Navy Officers

593

Air Force officers

640

Table 39

Dr. M. Moiz Khan

Assistant Professor

Dept, of History, University of Karachi
0322-2391591, moiz200@yahoo.com

Representation in Government:

Like army the people of East Bengal were poorly represented in important offices
of government. The cabinet and other advisors of the government were from the West side
of the country. Also the power to make any decision was not in the hands of the East
Bengalis.

Central Secretariat Elite Posts, 1955

East Bengal

West Pakistan

Secretary

Joint Secretary

Deputy Secretary

123

Under Secretary

510

Table 40

Flight of money from East to West Pakistan:

Dr. M. Moiz Khan

Assistant Professor

Dept, of History, University of Karachi
0322-2391591, moiz200@yahoo.com

East Pakistan was the largest supplier of Jute in the world. Other than that many
crops of East Pakistan had high demand across the world. Bengal was the first province
that East India Company captured. The main reason for their presence was the economic
potential of Bengal. They stayed there and spread to other areas of India from here. Since
the British rule Bengal was the center of all the major economic activity of sub-continent.

After the independence of Pakistan in 1947 East Bengal still had the economic
value. The main grievance of the people of East Pakistan was not that the Federal
Government is earning money from there but the Government was not giving anything
back. All the development was taking place in West Pakistan while the East side was
growing frustration.

39 Dawn, 9 January 1956.

40 Pakistan Constitution Assembly Debates vol. 1, 7 January 1956, 1844. Cited in Mizanar Rahman, The
Emergence of Bangladesh as a Sovereign State, 68

The new capital Islamabad was built with the money of East Pakistan or with the
major contribution from East.

Six Points of Sheikh Mujibur Rehman:

The political direction of East Pakistan started to deviate from pro Pakistan
towards Bengali nationalism as early as 1948. The address of Jinnah in Dhaka in which
he declared that Urdu would be the national language of Pakistan was not taken lightly.
Agitations started immediately after the speech. Since then Muslim League started to lose
popularity. In these circumstances a nationalist party Awami League attracted the
inhabitants of East Pakistan by promising them the rights which the government of
Pakistan was not giving them.

Sheikh Mujib gained popularity in short time and established himself as the savior
of his people. He was able to reach the apex of his political career after he presented his
famous six points, which are as under;

1. Both sides of Pakistan should have their own currency. (The reason behind this
point was that they believed that due to the West Pakistan the currency does not
have value in international market. By separating currency they wished to safe
themselves from the impact of slow and weak economy of West Pakistan).

2. The provinces should have full power to collect and set taxes within their
jurisdiction. The provinces will pay the due share to the federal government. (This
point suggests that they wanted to keep the money with themselves which seems
right as well. This way they can develop their part of the country which they think
is behind the pace of development of West.)

3. Both sides should have their own paramilitary forces. (There was a strong believe
that East Pakistan is very venerable compared to West Pakistan. Another reason
was that majority of the army personals were from West Pakistan so there should
be parity in this regard.)

4. A directly elected government should be installed at the center and allowed to
work properly.

5. Each part should be allowed to make their own trade agreements. (The Federal

Government was getting all the profits made through the trade East Pakistan. This
point says that now the money would stay in the province.)

6. Federal Government should only control defense and foreign relations. All the
other subjects should be given to the province

The nature of these six points suggest that the people who have asked these points
do not wish to stay with Pakistan any more.

Elections of 1970:

The first general elections were finally conducted in 1970 December under the
LFO issued by Yahiya Khan. According to this ordinance the One Unit Plan was
abolished and total number of seats was 300. West Pakistan was allocated 138 seats and
East Pakistan was allocated 162 seats. The results of elections were very unique. Awami

Dr. M. Moiz Khan

Assistant Professor

Dept, of History, University of Karachi
0322-2391591, moiz200@yahoo.com

Dr. M. Moiz Khan

Assistant Professor

Dept, of History, University of Karachi
0322-2391591, moiz200@yahoo.com

League won 161 seats in total but all of them were in East Bengal (Pakistan). They were
unable to secure a single seat in the Western part. On the other hand the second largest
party was Pakistan People’s Party and they were able to secure 81 seats in total and all
of these seats were located in four provinces of West Pakistan. PPP was completely
rejected in Bengal.

According to the rules of democracy it was the right of Awami League to form the
government because of their clear majority in the parliament. However the demography of
the election results can easily confuse any one. The people of both sides have rejected each
other. The verdict of the people is very clear that they reject the other part. The political
parties of the East were unable to attract the people of west and vice versa.

Yahiya Khan thought that he has done his job and now it’s the politicians turn to
form the government and serve the country and its people. He was wrong. He did not see
the divide and its impact. Bhutto the leader of PPP said that he has the right to form the
government because he was won seats in four out of five provinces of Pakistan. On the
other hand Awami League said that they have clear majority so they should be asked to
form the government.

Yahiya Khan announced that the first session of the national assembly would be
conducted in Dhaka in March 1971. Unfortunately some days earlier this session he
postponed it till further notice.

This proved to be the last nail in the coffin. The people of East Bengal started to
agitate against this decision and full riots started in Bengal. Army was called and
suppression on great scale was launched. Now it was too late the Bengalis were not
willing to surrender. Finally on 16 th December the East Pakistan became Bangladesh and
the Pakistan lost most of its population. Dr Mo j z Khan

Assistant Professor

Dept, of History, University of Karachi

National Assembly Election Results, 1970 _ 0322-239i59i.moiz200@yahoo.com

S.no

Party

Punjab

Sindh

NWFP

Bal.

West

Total

East

Total

ZZZ_1-

Pakistan

Total

—

160

PPP

—

PML (Q)

—

CML

—

JU (H)

—

JUP

—

NAP (W)

—

PML (C)

—

PDP

—

Independent

—

Total

138

162

300

Table 41

41 Ian Talbot, 200

Dr. M. Moiz Khan

Assistant Professor

Dept, of History, University of Karachi
0322-2391591, moiz200@yahoo.com

Bhutto and his era 1971-77:

Important aspects to be covered:

1. Constitution of 1973

2. Nationalization policy

3. Education and health policy

4. Control over army

5. Steps towards Islamization

6. His downfall

7. Death of Bhutto

Introduction:

Bhutto entered into politics of Pakistan during the rule of Ayub Khan. Ayub Khan
made young Bhutto his cabinet member as a foreign minister. During his minister ship
he impressed everyone within and outside Pakistan. All historians agree that Bhutto was
the best foreign minister Pakistan ever had. In 1965 Pakistan entered in war with India
which ended Bhutto’s association with Ayub Khan. He was dismissed by Ayub Khan
who blamed the war and its handling on Bhutto. After leaving government Bhutto started
his own political party called Pakistan People’s Party.

He took the support of Marxist ideas and made a very popular slogan ‘roti, kapra
aur makan, means ‘bread, clothing and shelter’ for everyone. The major problem of Ayub
Khan’s era was accumulation of money in the hands of 22 business families; Bhutto
carefully targeted this problem and used it in his own favor. He party became popular in
very short time. However this popularity was restricted only in the West Pakistan. He
and his Party was the spear head the movement against Ayub Khan.

In the elections of 1970 his party was able to grab 81 seats out of 132 in West
Pakistan however it failed to win any seat out of 162 seats in East Pakistan. After the
separation of Pakistan on 16 th December General Yahiya Khan then President and Chief
Martial Law Administrator invited Bhutto to take charge of the country. On 20 th
December Yahiya made Bhutto the President and Chief Martial Law Administrator of
the country and backed away.

Dr. M. Moiz Khan

Assistant Professor

Dept, of History, University of Karachi
0322-2391591, moiz200@yahoo.com

After becoming President Bhutto started to work towards framing the new

constitution of Pakistan. He formed the national assembly on the basis of the results of

1970 elections. Within a year the new constitution was completed and it was implemented

in 1973. According to the new constitution the form of government was parliamentary

and all the executive powers were in the hand of Prime Minister. Bhutto became Prime

Minister of Pakistan. -

Dr. M. Moiz Khan

Assistant Professor

1. Constitution of 1973: | Dept, of History, University of Karachi

________ 0322-2391591, moiz200@yahoo.com

i. All the executive power will be in the hands of Prime Minister and he will be the
head of the government.

ii. The legislation would be bi-camera (consisting of two houses). National assembly
would be elected on the basis of population and in senate all the provinces would
have equal number of seats regardless of population.

iii. President and the Prime Minister of Pakistan must be Muslims.

iv. The name of the country would be Islamic Republic of Pakistan.

v. All the people of the country including religious minorities would enjoy full civil
liberties.

vi. President of Pakistan would be elected in directly through all the assemblies’
national assembly, senate and provincial assemblies.

2. Nationalization Policy:

The link of Bhutto’s nationalization policy can be found in Ayub era. This policy
was a reaction of the economic policy of Ayub Khan. Ayub introduced such economic
policies which benefited only a fraction of the population of Pakistan which has been
discussed in detail earlier. Since Bhutto started his political party promised common
people of Pakistan to make their economic conditions better. During his political
campaign he used the slogan, “roti, kapra aur makan”, (bread, clothing and shelter).

After coming to power he followed a socialist plan to fulfill his promise. The plan
seemed simple. All the private industries and businesses would be taken up by the
government. He thought this way the government would open the employment to all and
when people will get employment their living conditions would automatically improve.
In other words taking money away from rich and giving it to poor.

Problem according to Bhutto was that private owners of industries limited the
number of employees due to which less people got the chance. Bhutto after taking all the
industries opened employment. This plan was initially successful but it had long term
harmful effects; a) Industries started to more salaries than they were earning. Therefore
government started to face heavy losses, b) By nationalization Bhutto closed the window
for private investors. Local and foreign investors kept away from Pakistani market because
of the fear of losing industries and investments. Due to this Pakistan did not see
industrialization for more than a decade. This affected the economic growth of Pakistan.

3. Education Policy:

Bhutto also ordered to take over many schools. He opened many new government
schools and colleges across Pakistan. He tried to homogenize education system of
Pakistan. He made Primary education compulsory for every student.

Although Bhutto introduced educational reforms but they were not enough to cope
up with the needs of the country. Even today after 30 years of Bhutto, education is the
foremost issue the government has to face. Unfortunately political parties hardly pay any
attention towards these issues.

4. Health Policy:

a. Bhutto started Rural Health Centers (RHC) to provide health facilities to the
population living in villages. According to the plan there would be one RHC for
every 60000 people.

b. He introduced Basic Health Units (BHU) in urban areas. One unit for every 20000
people.

c. Training colleges were setup for the training of medical staff and assistants.
Nursing schools were also started to train nurses to work across the country.

5. Control over army:

Before Bhutto’s rule the politics of Pakistan was dominated by army under the
influence of Ayub Khan. Bhutto took some steps to minimize the role of army and to
have a check over them;

a. He ordered the removal 29 important army commanders.

b. He appointed army commanders who were more loyal to him.

c. He established Federal Security Force to assist police in civilian matters. Earlier
army used to be called by government for out of control civilian matters. This
way army used to get a chance in power politics. FSF was also used for political
victimization.

6. Downfall of Bhutto:

When Bhutto introduced the constitution of 1973 he formed the government on
the basis the results of 1970 elections. Opposition parties criticized this step of Bhutto.
The main argument was that when those elections were conducted Pakistan included East
Pakistan as well and now its new Pakistan with new boundaries. All opposition political
parties started protesting against Bhutto’s government and demanded him to conduct new
elections. Bhutto was confident that he enjoys popularity in majority of the people so he
announced to conduct elections.

On the other hand 9 different political parties joined and formed Pakistan National
Alliance (PNA). These political parties in their political agitation and campaign were able
to gather thousands of people of streets. In the elections PPP won 154 seats out of 200.
PNA accused the government of rigging. They said that we do not accept the results of
these elections and the government has wrongfully turned the results in its favor with the

Dr. M. Moiz Khan

Assistant Professor

Dept, of History, University of Karachi
0322-2391591, moiz200@yahoo.com

Dr. M. Moiz Khan

Assistant Professor

Dept, of History, University of Karachi
0322-2391591, moiz200@yahoo.com

help of state machinery.

The friction between the two parties grew and both were not willing to step aside.
Government ordered to arrest anyone who goes against it. However the protest against
the government became stronger. Thousands of people were arrested but the movement
did not die. Army played its role and tried to end the situation with their way. On 5th July
1977 Zia-ul-Haq the Chief of Army Staff of Pakistan stepped in and proclaimed martial
law in the country. He took all the powers in his hands and arrested Bhutto. He also
suspended the constitution of 1973.

National Assembly Results, March 1977

S.no

Party

Candidates

Seats won

% vote

PPP

191

155

58.1

PNA

168

35.4

PML-Qayyum

Independent

324

Minor Parties

Total

741

200

Table 42

8. Death of Bhutto:

Dr. M. Moiz Khan

Assistant Professor

Dept, of History, University of Karachi
0322-2391591, moiz200@yahoo.com

After Bhutto’s arrest after the martial law he was released within few days. Zia
knew that if he want to establish his rule over Pakistan then he need to get rid of Bhutto
by any means. Zia found out that there was a pending case of assassination against Bhutto.
He was accused of ordering the murder of Nawab Muhammad Ahmed Khan father of
Ahmed Raza Qasuri. Zia reopened the case and Lahore high court awarded death sentence
to Bhutto.

This sparked and international reaction regarding the politics of Pakistan. Many
leaders of the world asked Zia not to go for this punishment and leave Bhutto. Only Zia
had the power to pardon Bhutto as a president. Bhutto was rearrested in September 1977
and finally was put to death on 4th April 1979.

Hasan Askari Zaidi, TheMilitary and Politics in Pakistan (Delhi, 1988), 219

Zia and his Era 1977-88

Zia came in power through martial law on 5th July 1977. He suspended the
constitution and promised the people of Pakistan a new government would be formed
through elections within three months. Later he stayed in power for the next 11 years.
Zia told people that the country is going through a very chaotic phase and we need
someone to save us from this turmoil. He presented himself to be that savior and claimed
that he would take the country out of all the troubles.

Zia was unable to abrogate the constitution of 1973 because according to it
whoever abrogate this constitution will be considered enemy of the country and should be
hanged. The main problem in front of Zia was to get support for his rule and legitimize
it through any means. For this purpose he took the support of Islam and the religious
political parties who were against Bhutto.

Some steps of his Islamization process;

Islainisation by Zia:

He made “Dupatta” compulsory for all Muslims women going in public
places.

He prohibited the sale of alcohol openly and specially to Muslims. It could
be sold by and to non-Muslims under a license.

He made Islamiat and Pakistan studies compulsory for all students in
Pakistan.

He made shariat courts,

He introduced and implemented Hudood ordinances. There were four
major aspects covered in ; a) offences of wrong allegation b) offences of
Zina c) Offences against property and d) prohibition of drinking alcohol.
He also introduced Zakat and Ushur ordinance.

A council of Islamic ideology was setup to recommend different policies
in economics and other matters.

He introduced the “Ehteram-e-Ramzan” (respect of the holy month of
Ramzan) ordinance.

The government issued the orders for the regular observance of Namaz and
special arrangements were made to arrange Zohar in government offices.
The degrees granted by the religious institutions were given the equal
status to M.A.

Support to Zia’s rule:

Till 1979 the rule of Zia was not stable but some international events became the
saviors of Zia. Russia attacked Afghanistan. This was a great event and was very
significant for the Western World. USA and other Western countries saw it as a spread

Or. M. Moiz Khan

Assistant Professor

Dept, of History, University of Karachi
0322-2391591, moiz200@yahoo.com

ii.

iii.

iv.

vi.

vii.

viii

ix.

Or. M. Moiz Khan

Assistant Professor

Dept, of History, University of Karachi
0322-2391591, moiz200@yahoo.com

of socialism which was not acceptable to them at any cost. Afghanistan became the battle
field for the all the great powers.

In this situation Western World wanted someone like Zia (who could be easily
manipulated) to support them in all aspects. Zia was an army man and country was under
martial law so whatever Zia does he can enforce it through power. It was an ideal scenario
for the West. They support Zia’s rule and return they wished that he support them to
check the advances of Russia. West fought whole Afghan War from Pakistan. A new
term came in international politics “proxy war” due to this event. Finally West was able
to achieve its goals and Russia lost the war and disintegrated.

Secondly another great event of international importance took place which also
indirectly supported the rule of Zia. In Iran Islamic Revolution took place. In this
revolution the more liberal and modern government was over thrown by Islamic political
leader led by Imam Khomeini in 1979. The revolutionaries first attacked US embassy
and an international scandal started. In this scenario as well US needed unconditional
support from Pakistan. The reason due to which these two events affected Pakistan was
that it shared borders with both the countries.

For USA a strong rule like military rule of Zia was ideal under the circumstances
because he would do whatever they wished because his rule was illegitimate and USA
was a super power. Zia willingly agreed to the wishes of US and secured a strong position
for himself in the politics of Pakistan. He later stayed in power till 1988 when a tragic
air crash took his life near Bahawalpur.

Dr. M. Moiz Khan

Assistant Professor

Dept, of History, University of Karachi

The referendum: 0322 - 2391591 ,moiz 200 @yahoo.com

Zia conducted a referendum before conducting elections. He wanted to strengthen
his position and provide legitimacy to his rule. He knew that he might not get popular
vote through elections so he planned a tricky referendum in which he played with his
voters. He posted a question which was very difficult for common people to say no to.
Instead of asking people a simple question about his presidency like, ‘do you want to see
Zia as president’ he framed a question, ‘do you agree with the process of Islamization
and do you want to continues or not’.

Most of the population of Pakistan did not take part in this so called referendum.
Those who went to take part were unable to deal with this tricky referendum and fell
pray of Zia’s wish. n,. m. Mnb. Kh»n

Dr. M. Moiz Khan

Assistant Professor

Dept, of History, University of Karachi
0322-2391591, moiz200@yahoo.com

| j • r 1 AO r i/tpi. 01 iiiaiuijf, iDiiivtj.aii._y vji ivtuavn 1

Elections 01 1^05: 0322 - 2391591 ,moiz 200 @yahoo.com

After securing his position through referendum he went for elections. Again like
referendum he planned to conduct which suited him and his plans to stay in power. He
declared that the elections would be conducted on nonparty basis. This sounds like a joke
and mockery of democracy. How is it possible for people to take part in electoral process
without their political orientation and association?

The elections were conducted under the strict supervision of army. Muhammad

Khan Junejo became the Prime Minister of the so called elections. Even after the
elections Zia did not lift Martial Law. Junejo was pressurized by the parliament to lift the
Martial Law. However Zia had other plans. He said until the parliament accepts all the
amendments made by him he will not lift it. So under the pressure the parliament
legalized all the ordinances he made. 59 articles were amended in this single amendment
called 8th amendment. The most famous article is 58 ii b, through which the president
has the power to dissolve national assembly.

Benazir Bhutto Frist Government 1988-1990:

Introduction:

Benazir Bhutto was the eldest daughter of Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto the founding member
and first chairman of Pakistan People’s Party (PPP). She stayed outside of Pakistan throughout
her educational years and received education in Oxford University, England. When her father’s
government was taken over by General Zia ul Haq she with other members of her family was
captured by Zia and sent to jail for several years. After coming out of jail she and her family
went out of Pakistan.

She decided to permanently join politics and carry the mission of her father forward.
She was guided by some senior members of PPP and finally decided to come back to Pakistan
in 1986 and take charge of the party. She was married to Asif Ali Zardari in 1986 at Karachi.

In 1988 August General Zia ul Haq died in an air crash near Bahawalpur after which
the army of Pakistan decided to back out from active politics and did not announce another
military president. The military administration announced election in 1988 which were
conducted accordingly.

Formation of Government:

The party position in the elections of 1988 was not very strong however PPP emerged
as the single largest party which did not have enough seats to make government on their own.
Consequently a coalition government was formed with the support of other political parties.
Due to the weak position of Benazir she made some compromises with the army and the
caretaker President Ghulam Ishaq Khan.

She agreed to support Ghulam Ishaq Khan in presidential election. Ghulam Ishaq was
a former bureaucrat with illustrious career in terms of holding important government posts. She
even agreed to continue with the foreign minister of Zia’s regime Sahibzada Yaqub Khan
because the establishment could not afford any alteration in the foreign policy during those
trouble years.

The troika:

Dr. M. Moiz Khan

Assistant Professor

Dept, of History, University of Karachi
0322-2391591, moiz200@yahoo.com

The term Troika was coined during the first government of Benazir it means the Prime
Minister, President and Army Chief, consult before major important decisions. This was a
compromise Benazir had to make if she wanted to form a government. The political forces
were weak and army backed out of their own decision rather than the wishes of people or
political parties. Army could have taken over again at any time if their role in decision making

was challenged.

Friction between Islamabad and Provinces:

Dr. M. Moiz Khan

Assistant Professor

Dept, of History, University of Karachi
0322-2391591, moiz200@yahoo.com

According to the constitution of 1973 Pakistan was a federation with four provinces
which were responsible for many things concerning their development for example, education
(schools, colleges, and universities), health (hospitals, clinics, doctors, nursing schools), roads,
some taxes, industrialization etc. However the power to govern these elements was not yet
given to provinces in reality.

The provincial governments wanted autonomy over these things so that do not have to
depend upon Federal Government any more. The major opposition was posted from Punjab
where anti PPP government was ruling under the leadership of Mian Nawaz Sharif. Islamic
Democratic Front (Islami Jamhori Ittehad) was a union of pro-Islamic parties under the central
leadership of Nawaz Sharif. This party was made b army in 1988 to counter the public
popularity of PPP. Army although backed out from politics in 1988 but they did not want any
single party to be powerful enough to make major changes in the government so they preferred
a dilute political structure.

The headlines of daily newspapers were occupied by comments and remarks of the
leadership of PPP and IJI against each other. Benazir had control over federal government and
Nawaz Sharif was ruling the largest province of Pakistan with more than 60% population. It
was a fight between two giants and people were suffering.

Benazir made Ghulam Mustafa Khar governor of Punjab who had the power to dissolve
the provincial assembly on the advice of President. IJI reacted strongly against this
appointment. A very shameful incident occurred during 1990 when three FI A (Federal
Investigation Agency) agents were arrested by Punjab Police on the orders of Punjab
Government, when they were investigating tax evasion by a minister of Punjab Government in
one of his factories.

The establishment of Punjab Bank in 1989 was seen a rebellion against the federation
of Pakistan by Nawaz Sharif however the constitution provided provisions for such step by
provincial governments. The blame game escalated by passing time and both parties targeted
next elections. IJI wanted midterm elections so they can test their arm in government. IJI
targeted Benazir for her position on Kashmir and relations with India. She was looking forward
to defuse tension between the two countries for their better future. This issue was highlighted
by IJI and they twisted it to such angles which supported them.

This fight between the two largest parties of Pakistan served no purpose to the people
perhaps it served the ambitions of political leadership. There was a debate that democracy could

no function in Pakistan because of incompetent political leadership and the 1988-90
government strengthen this believe.

Fall from power:

The decline of Benazir started form Karachi. The government in Islamabad was
supported by MQM (Muhajir Quami Movement). The leadership of MQM was facing different
challenges than any other political party in Pakistan because of their political agenda. MQM
was established due to the marginalization of Muhajir community and people supported them
because they stood for them. There were many expectations from MQM due to which the
leadership had to work quick.

Before 1988 election a massacre took place in Hyderabad in area of MQM supporters
in which around 120 people lost their lives in spray of firing from cars at several places at one
time. MQM demanded action from PPP their coalition partners on many such issues and they
finally left PPP in 1989 and joined IJI and blamed PPP for turning away from its promises. On
the top of it Pucca Qila operation took place in May 1990 when police raided Pucca Qila an
old fort in Hyderabad in suspension of criminals hiding in it. Police opened fire and killed 31
supporters of MQM along with women and children. It is reported that women came out with
Quran on their heads to stop the shooting but they were unable to do so.

After this incident violence started in Karachi and Hyderabad. The president of Pakistan
Ghulam Ishaq Khan used his power to dismiss government under the article 58-2,b. He said
the government has failed to control violence, they are corrupt, they introduced nepotism and
they are incompetent.

Some achievements of Benazir:

Dr. M. Moiz Khan

Assistant Professor

Dept, of History, University of Karachi
0322-2391591, moiz200@yahoo.com

1 .

2 .

First Women Bank was opened by Benazir for giving larger role to women of Pakistan.
There was a ban on trade unions during the time period of Zia. Benazir lifted the ban
and allowed worker to make unions and demand their rights from employers.

Ini 971 Bangladesh was created and it became a member of Commonwealth. Since then
Pakistan left commonwealth on protest. In 1988 Benazir government rejoined
commonwealth.

Women were given job on a greater scale. They were now more government job than
ever. They went into police and judiciary.

Nawaz Sharif

Introduction:

Nawaz Sharif belonged to a well-established business family of Punjab. He started hi
politics during the time of Zia ul Haq, who was responsible for many business favors to Nawaz
Sharif. Even today the sugar mill owned by Sharif in Pakpattan in Punjab has Zia ul Haq’s
name on the founding stone. He was in fact brought into politics by military establishment to
counter PPP in Punjab and later across the country. He became the Chief Minister of Punjab n
1986 due to good graces of Zia. He became the leader of Ul in 1988 when military
establishment founded this party by bribes given to many leaders. The founder of IJI General
Asif Nawaz has now told the story of its establishment and Mr. Asghar Khan has challenged
the founding of IJI in court in a case, which is still pending in Supreme Court.

In t 1990 elections Nawaz Sharif and his party claimed 105 seats against 45 seats of
PPP. IJI emerged as the single largest party in Pakistan and went to form federal government.
After forming the government he started to works towards his policies which were business
friendly.

Economic policies:

Being a business man he believed in free market economy and decided to privatize 89
government owned organization which included railways, shipping, energy,
telecommunication etc. Uncontrolled privatization was dangerous to Pakistan’s economy and
people because it would allow owners to maximize their profit without giving benefits to their
workers. During his time millions of dollars came in for investment.

He started a yellow cab scheme in which loans were given to people who could become
owners of a taxi and pay the government later through its income. This was a very popular
scheme and thousands of households benefitted with it.

He fixed the minimum wages for workers to be 1500 Rs.. His policies were heavily
criticized by PPP who compared his policies with plundering of Pakistan. His economic efforts
generally benefitted the wealthy due to encouragement private business without governmental
control.

Dr. M. Moiz Khan

Assistant Professor

Dept, of History, University of Karachi
0322-2391591, moiz200@yahoo.com

Gulf war and Nuclear issue:

In 1990 Gulf War started when Ghulam Mustaf Jatoi was care taker Prime Minister. He
supported USA on its advances on Iraq and also sent Pakistani soldiers to support US. When
Nawaz Sharif became Prime Minister he continued the policy of support. This was not taken
as a good move by many Pakistani’s including many supporters of Nawaz. He face huge
criticism but did not change his stance.

One of the reasons for Pakistan’s support was that US had put some economic and
military sanctions on Pakistan on the doubt that Pakistan is developing it nuclear weapons. US
demanded to immediately stop the nuclear program. Pakistan’s government thought by

supporting US in Gulf war they might get some benefits, however US did not lift the sanctions
even after unconditional support by Pakistan.

Internal disturbances:

During Afghan war Pakistan became a market for illegal weapons and drugs.
Thousands of Afghan Refugees came to Pakistan who had their links back at home. All the
weapons used in Afghan war came to Pakistan which were being bought by criminals and drug
dealers.

Nawaz Sharif faced the challenge of dealing with this menace with firm hand. He took
many steps towards controlling these elements but did not succeed. He also made Speedy Trial
Courts to conduct and conclude cases related to crimes then and there so more and more cases
can be solved. However criticism was raised against the function of these courts and dealing
with innocent because it had only one chance of appeal.

Reasons for removal from Power:

Bank scandals were the first major blows to the government of Nawaz Sharif. A bank
BCCI (bank of Credits and Commerce International) was started by a Pakistani banker Agha
Hasan Abedi in 1972. This bank dealt with most of the prominent politicians and business men
of Pakistan including Sharif family who were major costumer of the bank.

The bank was black listed by England and they closed all operations of the bank on the
charges of frauds, money laundering and criminality. However Pakistan’s government
supported the bank and allowed it to function in Pakistan. US government wanted to arrest
Agha Hasan and extradite him fo America, but Nawaz Sharif refused to hand him over.

On the other hand Nawaz Sharif started a military operation on it coalition partner
MQM in Karachi. Army wasted to conduct this operation against the criminals of Sind. There
was a division of opinion with in Nawaz’s leadership Chaudhry Nisar was of the opinion that
it should not target MQM because it will further deteriorate the situation. However the
operation was given green signal and Karachi became an urban battlefield. According to MQM
thousands of it supporters were killed under the shadow of the operation.

Ghulam Ishaq Khan the president of Pakistan once again decided to use his power to
dissolve the national and provincial assemblies. He did it and framed same allegations against
IJI government as Benazir’s government. Nawaz went Supreme Court against the use of 58-2b
by president. Supreme Court favored Nawaz and ordered the restoration of assemblies calling
the act by president as illegal.

After restoration Nawaz under the pressure of military establishment finally decided to
resign and call for fresh elections. President Ghulam Ishaq Khan was also forced by army to
resign as president.

Dr. M. Moiz Khan

Assistant Professor

Dept, of History, University of Karachi
0322-2391591, moiz200@yahoo.com

Languages:

Why Urdu was chosen as the national language of Pakistan?

At the time of independence there were many languages spoken in Pakistan, for
example Bengali, Punjabi, Sindhi, Balochi and Pashto. However all of these languages
were associated with a particular province or people. There was no single language which
was spoken all across Pakistan. The other fact was that all the above mentioned languages
were regional and people speaking them could not understand each other’s language.

In these circumstances choosing any one regional language over the other could
create regional jealousies and hatred. Urdu was a language which was not associated
with any one province. Urdu could also work as a bridging language between the
different communities of Pakistan. This way no province of Pakistan can say that the
government has neglected them over other province.

Secondly Urdu was a language which originated in sub-continent some 8 centuries
ago amongst Muslims. The early Muslim invaders had different races in their army for
example Arabs, Turks, Persian, and Afghans etc. These people when started to
communicate with each other a new language was formed which had words from all the
languages these people spoke. So Urdu had always been associated with Muslims of sub¬
continent. Pakistan was a country made for the Muslims of sub-continent so their cultural
identity was Urdu and this factor was considered by the early Government of Pakistan
before choosing Urdu as a national language.

Dr. M. Moiz Khan

Assistant Professor

Dept, of History, University of Karachi

0322-2391591, moiz200@yahoo.com

Development of provincial languages by the government:

Many steps have been taken by the government to promote provincial languages
in their respective provinces.

i. The government universities offer Master’s level degree in their regional
language, for example Karachi University and Sind University situated in Sind
have Sindhi department where students study Sindhi literature. Likewise
Punjab University has Punjabi department which offers Punjabi literature.

ii. The government supports the institutions which promote regional languages.
For example newspapers are being published in the regional languages which
are authorized by the government.

iii. On the national television PTV news was telecasted in provincial language in
respective province.

II. Land and people of Pakistan.

Geography, Society, Natural resources.
Agriculture, Industry and education with
reference to characteristics, trends and
Problems

Natural Topography

Points to be covered:

1. Location and names of these topographical features.

2. Important features of them.

3. Lifestyle of the people living in these areas.

Earth is a very complex planet which consists of many different types of elements and other
materials. There thousands of such things which we cannot see and differentiate other than
scientists. Earth can be divided into six major land forms which we can see and differentiate.

1 Mountains.

2 Plateaus.

3 Rivers.

4 Seas.

5 Plains.

6 Desserts.

Pakistan is one of those fortunate countries which have all of these land forms.

1. Mountains:

Mountains are a very important feature for any country. Pakistan has plenty of mountains
which are divided into three regions and seven ranges. Some important or useful aspects of
mountains are as under;

a. Mountains have glaciers which melt and form rivers. Pakistan cannot survive without
its water resources.

Dr. M. Moiz Khan

Assistant Professor

Dept, of History, University of Karachi
0322-2391591, moiz200@yahoo.com

b. Our Northern Mountains protect us from cold Siberian winds. These winds are so
cold that if they find their way into Pakistan the people living in those areas could
not continue living there.

c. They provide scenic beauty which attracts tourists. This way we earn money.

d. Mountains are covered with forests which provide wood for many different
purposes.

e. They protect wild life for example Leopards, Snow Leopards (which is only found
in Pakistan and its very rare), Markhor etc.

f. Mountainous valleys are favorable for constructing dams. Dams are very
important for generating electricity.

g. They serve as natural frontier (boundary) of Pakistan in North.

h. These mountains also have many famous passes through which we are connected
with Asia Minor on West and China on East. These passes are famous due to
historical events and trade between China and Asia Minor.

Mountains of Pakistan are divided into three regions which are further divided into 7 Ranges.
There are in some cases many ranges in one region. A region is a larger area which may have
more than one range in it and range is a single continuous mountainous system. The main
mountainous regions of Pakistan are as under;

i. Northwestern

Hindu Kush

ii. Northern

Karakorum

Himalayas

iii. Western

Safed Koh
Waziristan
Suleiman
Kirthar.

Dr. M. Moiz Khan

Assistant Professor

Dept, of History, University of Karachi
0322-2391591, moiz200@yahoo.com

Grid map of Pakistan for learning Latitudes and Longitudes

1. Northwestern

This region has only one great mountainous range Hindu Kush . This is a very large

range which passes thorough Pakistan and it also exist in other neighboring countries.

Hindu Kush:

a. The average height of this range is 5000m .

b. It passes through Afghanistan, Pakistan, and China.

c. The most famous peak of this range is Tirch Mir (7690m) .

d. Some famous and important passes are Shnadur Pass which connects Chitral with Gilgit.
And Shangla Pass connects Swat with Dir valley.

e. Some important town of this range in Pakistan are, i. Swat, ii. Chitral, iii. Dir ,

Dr. M. Moiz Khan

Assistant Professor

Dept, of History, University of Karachi
0322-2391591, moiz200@yahoo.com

f. It is also known as “ Roof of the World ”

g. The name means “ mountains of Hind ”

h. Famous river in the area is Swat River.

2. Northern Mountains:

There are two main ranges in it Karakorum and Himalayas.

Karakorum:

Dr. M. Moiz Khan
Assistant Professor
Dept, of History, University

a. The average height of these mountains is 6000m .

b. The name means “ black gravel”.

c. The second highest peak in the world K2 (8610m) is in this range.

d. The second largest glacier in the Siachen (78km) lies in this range.

e. Some important towns of the range are, i. Gil git , ii. Hunza , iii. Baltistan , iv.
Balavaristan .

f. Important passes are, i. Karakorum pass , ii. Khunjurab pass , iii. Mintaka pass .

Himalayas

a. It means “ home of snow” .

b. Its average height is 4000m .

c. Its highest peak is Nanga Parbat (8126 m) .

d. This is one of the largest mountainous range which pass through or touch Bhutan,
Nepal, China, India and Pakistan.

e. Mount Everest lies in this range in Nepal.

f. Some important towns of this range are, i. Murre, ii. Nathia Galli , iii. Kaghan , iv.
Naran etc.

3. Western Mountains:

There four further ranges in the western region.

Safed Koh:

a. The average height is 4712m

b. It means “white mountains”

Waziristan hills:

a. The average height is

b. 3513

Suleiman Range:

Kirthar

Dr. M. Moiz Khan

Assistant Professor

Dept, of History, University of Karachi
0322-2391591, moiz200@yahoo.com

Glaciers:

They are water deposits in the form of snow formed due to snow fall in winter season. They
are found on mountains and mountainous valleys. Pakistan has many glaciers which are the
main source of water supply throughout the year. Life is almost impossible on a glacier. The
largest glacier in Pakistan is Siachen which is around 78km long. It is also disputed between
Pakistan and India.

Life Style of the people living in mountainous areas:

The life of people living in mountainous areas is very tough. They do not have all the
facilities which are available to the people living in plains. For example wide roads, large
buildings, proper transportation, industries and factories, rail roads, large air ports etc. The
population of these areas is also limited. The population varies according to the topography
or landscape of a particular area.

The people practice a semi nomadic life style, which means they move between higher and
lower altitude areas of mountains. This movement is caused by the climatic conditions.
During summer months when the snow melts it gives way to the grass behind it. These
people move towards uphill to feed their animals and practice limited agriculture in form of
terrace farming. Their income opportunities are limited. They rely on their animals and
whatever small scale farming they practice. The temperature of these areas is also very low
and it creates problem for people. They wear warm clothes and day light is much short in
these areas compare to other areas. They also cut wood to earn money. According to the law
in Pakistan no private person is allowed to cut trees in mountainous north even if that tree is
located within his personal property. Only government issues special permits to cut and sale
trees.

Transhumance life style followed by people living in mountainous areas:

Goats/sheep/cattle/yak/dzu/livestock

Seasonal movement

Move to higher slopes in summer/to summer pastures
Move to find food/pastures/grass/for grazing
Animals fattened
Milk/meat/wool/skins, etc.

Stay in valleys in winter/permanent homes in valley Animals kept in sheds in winter
Storage of hay/fodder crops
May take animals from other families

2. Plateaus

Dr. M. Moiz Khan

Assistant Professor

Dept, of History, University of Karachi
0322-2391591, moiz200@yahoo.com

Life Style of the people living on plateaus:

The lifestyle of the people living in Baluchistan plateau and Potowar plateau differs. People
living in Baluchistan face far more difficulties compared to the people of Potowar plateau.
The main reason behind the low population of Baluchistan is that it is a plateau. Baluchistan
is the largest province of Pakistan in area however it has the lowest population compared to

other provinces of Pakistan. Unlike mountains plateaus are flat from the top so they do not
have glaciers to supply water throughout the year. Plateaus are Barani areas and the annual
rainfall in Baluchistan Plateau is very low. That is why people cannot rely on rain and
agriculture. They usually follow nomadic lifestyle. They rare animals and for their grassing
they constantly move from one place to another.

On the other hand the people of Potowar plateau live comparatively better life due to the
favorable climate and land. It receives sufficient amount of rainfall and the land is also
suitable for cultivation. The people of this area rely on farming and have permanent
settlements.

Baluchistan Plateau

Potowar Plateau

Baluchistan is very large

covers the whole province.

Potowar is a much smaller plateau

which is located in the North of

Punjab.

BP is a barren, rugged and it has very
few areas with fertile soil.

Potowar P is very fertile and it has
softer surface.

BP has land dried rivers which only

receive water through rain. It means
that Baluchistan is a Barani (rain fed)

areas.

Potowar plateau receive heavy rain

fall through monsoon, convectional
and relief rain fall.

BP has many mineral resources like

gas, coal, gold, gypsum, lime stone

etc.

Its total area 347190 sq/km

PP has less mineral

resources,

considered as one of the largest salt
deposits in the world.

3. Plains

Dr. M. Moiz Khan

Assistant Professor

Dept, of History, University of Karachi
0322-2391591, moiz200@yahoo.com

Plains are those areas which are flat and have fertile soil which is suitable for cultivation and
agricultural activities. Plains also receive water through rain and rivers. There is one large
plain in Pakistan called Indus Plain and it is divided into two smaller plains called Upper
Indus Plain and Lower Indus Plain. Differences between the two plains are described later in
the chapter.

Life Style of the people of Plains:

Plains of Pakistan offer many opportunities of various occupations. Majority of the
population of Indus Plain is associated with agricultural activity. Indus Plain is the most
populated area of Pakistan. All the major cultivatable land is near the Indus Plain. Other than
agriculture people are associated in various kinds of occupation. Because of the availability
of water and food there are large towns and cities near Indus Plain that is why they are

suitable for establishment of industries which are capable of providing jon opportunities for a
large number of people.

Life is in Indus Plain is much easy than the life on Plateaus and Highland Areas of
Pakistan. Work opportunities are available along with the continuous supply of food and
water. Due to these factors people have permanent settlements in Indus Plain and they do not
move from one place to another in the search of food.

Upper Indus Plain

Lower Indus Plain

It has Five major rivers.

It has only one major river

It has many ‘Doabs’.

It does not have any ‘Doab’.

It receives most of the monsoon in

It only receives tails of monsoon for in

summer months.

the end of summer.

Conventional rain fall occurs in it

Conventional rain fall does not occur in
most of the Lower Indus plain due to
the heavy winds.

It has link canals.

It does not have any link canals.

It has a very large area for cultivation

It has a smaller cultivatable area than

and it contributes the most in total
agricultural produce of Pakistan.

Upper Indus Plain

It receives more floods than any other

It receives fewer floods than Upper

part of Pakistan.

Indus Plain.

Doab:

It is the land between two rivers. It is considered as the most fertile land across compared to
all other lands. It can be further divided into other sections which have different
characteristics.

Active flood Plain.
Old flood Plain.
Alluvial terrace.

Active Flood Plain:

a. It is a narrow strip of land on both sides of river.

b. It starts immediately after the river banks and ends at the start of old flood
plain.

c. It is the most fertile piece of land in the doab with best alluvial soil which is
most favorable for growing crops.

d. It receives floods on regular basis which are the source of its fertility.

Dr. M. Moiz Khan

Assistant Professor

Dept, of History, University of Karachi
0322-2391591, moiz200@yahoo.com

1 .

2 .

1 .

inn

It is not suitable to build houses, buildings or any infra structures because of

floods.

Dr. M. Moiz Khan

Assistant Professor

Dept, of History, University of Karachi
0322-2391591, moiz200@yahoo.com

2. Old Flood Plain:

a. It is a wider strip of land which runs along the river.

b. It starts after the old flood plain.

c. It is higher in altitude compared to active flood plain.

d. It is the second fertile land after active flood plain.

e. Floods occur in this area too however not regularly. Occasionally heavy floods
caused by heavy rainfall might come on this land.

f. This land can be used for residential purposes but it is dangerous because they
get occasional floods in some years but they are very profitable for crops.

3. Alluvial Terrace:

a. It is the highest ground on doab.

b. It rarely gets flooded.

c. It is least fertile land on doab.

d. It is the best area to construct houses.

DOAB

Alluvial Terrace

Dr. M. Moiz Khan

Assistant Professor

Dept, of History, University of Karachi
0322-2391591, moiz200@yahoo.com

101

Climate

Sources of Rainfall in Pakistan

Source of
rainfall

Season

Origin of clouds

Area of rainfall

Amount of
rainfall

Importance

Problems

Monsoon

Summer

July, August
and

September.

Bay of Bengal.

Upper Indus plain and
some parts of lower
Indus Plain.

Heavy rain fall.

i. It brings water to the rivers which
help in irrigation.

ii. It brings water to dams and
barrages.

iii. It provide water Barani areas
such

as Potowar Plateau.

iv. Provide water to crops which
need

i. Monsoon is the main cause
behind

the floods in Pakistan.

ii. Lack of monsoon can affect the
irrigation system which will have
direct impact on trade.

iii. Less water in dams will lower
the power generation.

Western

Depression.

Winter

Dec to Feb

Mediterranean Sea
between Europe and
Africa

Northern and Western

areas.

Moderate amount of
rainfall.

i. It Brings water to small rivers of
Baluchistan.

ii. Most of the Baluchistan is Barani
and Western Depression provide
water

to these areas.

Lack of Western Depression can
affect the people of Baluchistan
greatly because they do not have
many rain sources.

Conventional

rainfall

Summer

May till
September.

Upper Indus Plain

Heavy rainfall but
for

short period of time.

i. It cools down temperature in hot
months of summer.

ii. Brings water to rivers and fill
reservoirs.

It alone cannot cause floods but it
can contribute to floods.

Relief rainfall

Through out
the year.

Northern mountains.

Moderate rainfall.

It is responsible for the growth of
plantation in the mountains.

Landslides.

102

Climatic zones of Pakistan

The area of Pakistan is divided into four climatic zones which are as under.

1. Coastal areas:

Pakistan has a vast coastal belt which stretches from Kajhar Creek (on the border of
Pakistan and India) till Jiwani (last coastal town on Makran coast near Iran). It is about 900 km
long. Cities such as Karachi, Thatta, Sujawal, Ormara, Pasni and Gawadar lie in this Coastal
Zone. These areas have mild temperature. The weather of these areas is unpredictable and
unreliable. In summer the temperature can go above 40 degree centigrade but number of such
hot days is very less. The start and end of summer is hot but July and August are pleasant due
to the cloudy weather. In winters the temperature seldom drops below 20 degree centigrade,
but is recent years weather of Karachi has shown a new trend in 2007 the temperature dropped
to 6 degree centigrade at the start of February which is unusual.

2. Low Land Areas

The low land areas of Pakistan are the life line of Pakistan. The major low land area of
Pakistan consists of Indus Plain. This plain is further divided into Upper and Lower Indus Plain.
The Upper Indus plain starts almost from the border of N.W.F.P and foothills of Himalayas in
the North. It includes most of Punjab and it extends till the border of Sindh and Punjab in the
South.

The Lower Indus Plain starts where the Upper Indus Plain ends. It runs along the river
Indus. The Eastern areas of Sindh are not part of Lower Indus Plain as most of the people think
they are. The climate of Low Land areas of Pakistan is extreme. In parts of upper Indus plain
the temperatures in winters reach to 0 degree centigrade and in summer it reaches to 48 degree
centigrade for example Lahore. The low land areas of Pakistan receive the most amount of
rainfall. It lies in the monsoon zone which brings rain in summer. It also receives
rain through convectional rainfall.

3. High land areas:

Around 30% of total area of Pakistan is covered with high land areas. In North and in
West, Pakistan has these highland areas. In North there are Himalayas, Karakorum and Hindu
Kush mountain ranges. Safed Koh, Waziristan, Suleiman and Kirthar are situated in the West
of Pakistan. The Northern highlands are full of forests. They receive rain fall almost throughout
the year due to relief rainfall. The weather is cloudy most of the time. In winter they receive
snowfall which drops the temperature to below 0 degree centigrade.

On the other hand the western high lands of Pakistan have dry weather most of the year.
They receive rain usually in winter through western depression. In winter they also receive
snowfall. The western high lands do not have forests like northern high lands.

4. Arid areas:

The arid areas are spread in different parts of Pakistan. Most of the Eastern Sindh is
arid zone. It also has three deserts of Pakistan. The temperature in these areas is very hot in
summers and scarcity of water makes it very difficult to live. The West Baluchistan is also arid.

Dr. M. Moiz Khan

Assistant Professor

Dept, of History, University of Karachi
0322-2391591, moiz200@yahoo.com

103

Floods:

Causes of floods:

Dr. M. Moiz Khan

Assistant Professor

Dept, of History, University of Karachi
0322-2391591, moiz200@yahoo.com

1. One of the main causes of floods is heavy rainfall. In Pakistan floods occur in summer
and monsoon and convectional rainfall are responsible for it.

2. Another main cause is melting of glaciers in summer. The water of rain is increased due
to the water melting from glaciers.

3. Some small floods can be prevented but due to the lack to trees on the banks of rivers
they become weak and give way to water easily which cause floods. The roots of large trees
hold the soil together and it does not erode with the flow of water.

4. Unlined rivers also cause floods, because they are unable to hold water.

Prevention of floods:

1. Floods can be prevented by planting trees on the banks of rivers which will provide
strength to banks Inundation canals are a very effective method to prevent floods.

2. This canal is connected to the rivers from upper levels of river banks. Before spilling,
water goes into these canals.

3. By enlarging the river channels we can make room for the extra amount of water and
can to some extent prevent floods.

Advantages of floods

Disadvantages of floods.

Floods spread Alluvial soil where ever it

They destroy crops.

reaches. It is very important for

They destroy human settlements which

recharging the fertility of soil.

also accounts for financial loss.

Floods bring extra water in rivers, which

They kill farm animals which affects

fill reservoirs. This water is then stored

animal farming.

for the irrigation and generation of

They destroy infra-structure, e.g. roads,

electricity.

highways, electric lines etc.

Floods also recharge the ground water

Floods also can cause water logging and

and raise the water table under the

salinity.

ground. Excess of water can become

Floods can cause Siltation as well. Rivers

bring silt with water and floods are

harmful in the form of water logging.

capable of causing excessive soil erosion

which means this silt will accumulate in

reservoirs.

Dr. M. Moiz Khan

Assistant Professor

Dept, of History, University of Karachi
0322-2391591, moiz200@yahoo.com

104

Winds:

In summer wind blows from sea to land. The reason behind this direction is that wind
always blows from high pressure areas to low pressure areas. In summers due to the bright
sunlight the seas which is a water body gets heated easily and its temperature increases. Due
this in increase in temperature it creates high pressure above it. On the other hand the land mass
which is solid does not heat up quickly. Due to this it remain little colder than the sea and it
has low pressure above it. Wind blows from high pressure to low pressure in other words from
sea to land in summer.

In winters land becomes hot and seas becomes cold so there is high pressure above land
and low pressure above sea. In winter wind blows from land to sea.

105

Forrest

Type of Forest

Areas

Importance

Description

Alpine

Protection

Extreme north.

Dir, Sawat, Skirdu,
Gilgit etc.

i. Fuel wood.

ii. Prevent soil erosion.

iii. Prevent land sliding.

iv. Protect wild life.

v. Adds to scenic beauty and
tourism.

Short, studded evergreen.

Coniferous

Northern areas from
Islamabad till
extreme northern
areas. Murree,

Gallies. Abbotabad.

i. They are used for making
furniture.

ii. Sports goods.

iii. Protect wild life

iv. Contribute towards scenic
beauty and promote tourism.

v. Prevent land sliding

vi. Contribute to rainfall.

vii. Prevents soil erosion.

Evergreen conical in shape. Ability to
survive in harsh climate. Less leave
fall.

Tropical
thorn forest

Punjab, Sindh and

South East

Balochistan

i. Fire wood

ii. Protect wild life

iii. Grazing

iv. Used to build huts by
local people.

i. Mostly low in height.

ii. They have irregular branches.

iii. The wood of these forests is very
hard, not suitable for making furniture
or sports goods.

Sub-tropical
scrub forest

Found in the foothills
of the mountains.
Jehlum, Attock,

Mardan, Peshawar,
Abbotabad etc.

i. Protect the plains from
water shedding.

ii. Fire wood.

iii. Grazing.

iv. Herbal medicine.

Subtropical broad leaved thorny
species.

Bela forest

Upper and lower

Indus plain, along the
banks of rivers.

i. Prevent soil erosion which
prevents floods and Siltation.

ii. Used for making furniture
and sports goods.

iii. Protect local wildlife.

iv. Prevent and solve water
logging.

v. Provide strength to river
banks.

i. Linear plantation

ii. The trees consume more water than
others.

iii. They have soft wood favorable for
furniture making.

iv. They have straight trunk and
regular branches favorable for
furniture and other things.

Mangrove

Forest

Along the coastal
belt. Specially in
Karachi.

i. Supply

ii. Grazing

iii. Provide
species of

firewood,
purpose,
shelter for many
small fish.

i. Mangrove is special type of tree
which can survive in salt water of sea.

ii. They have a built in filter in their
roots which keeps the salt out of their
system.

iii. They have irregular branches.

Its wood is very hard.

iv. The wood of mangrove tree can

sink in water.

v. The roots of mangrove trees come
above the surface of the water which
creates a kind of web which work as
shelter for fish.

Irrigated
f orest

They can be planted
any where if water
can be supplied.

Some irrigated forests
in Pakistan are
Changamanga,

i. Prevent deforestation.

ii. They provide commercial
wood according to demand.

iii. Provide scenic beauty
and contribute towards
tourism.

iv. Prevent water logging
and salinity

They do not have a particular type of
tree. They are man made forests and
planted according to the need.

106

Dr. M. Moiz Khan

Assistant Professor

Dept, of History, University of Karachi

0322-2391591, moiz200@yahoo.com

Importance of forests:

1. They protect wild life of different types which include animals, birds, fish and
insects.

2. They provide scenic beauty, which attracts tourists and finally contribute to
foreign exchange.

3. They provide wood which is used in different types of commercial products.
For example, sports goods, furniture, paper and paper based products, ships,
houses etc.

4. They contribute to rainfall through the system of relief rainfall. It occurs on
mountains and is the main source of rainfall in these areas throughout the
year.

5. They provide raw material for different types of medicines.

6. Forests prevent soil erosion, which can cause siltation (explain in chapter 3).

7. They prevent land sliding. Land sliding is one of the most dangerous hazards
for the people of mountains. It is capable of destroying many house, roads and
infrastructure at the same time.

8. Forests clean our environment and reduce pollution.

9. They protect the surface of the Earth from hazards like water logging and
salinity (explained in chapter 3).

10. They provide different types of fruits and other items.

11. Forests provide food for stall feeding of farm animals.

12. They provide firewood for the people of rural areas.

13. Forests also play a vital role in preventing floods. The trees planted on
river banks provide strength to it and contain the water within the river.

14. Forests also help in controlling and lower temperature of their surroundings to
some extent.

107

Agriculture: Major Crops of Pakistan

Crop

Season

Water

required

products

H.Y.V

Impact on
trade

Problems

Solution

Main areas

Wheat

Winter/Rabi

Sowed in

OctANov. and
harvested in
Feb\March

It’s a 3 to 4
month crop.

It only requires

2 irrigations.

First one, a
month after the
sowing and
second one, a
month befoie
harvesting.

i. Husk

ii. Chipboard

iii. Hardboard

iv. Animal
feed

i. Maxi pak

ii. Shah khan

Negative.

Pakistan is unable
to meet the local
demand for many
years. Every year
we import wheat to
meat our local
demand due to
which we loose
foreign exchange.

i. Wheat is a staple crop it is
consumed in every meal of
Pakistani people. Due to the
high rate of population
growth Pakistan is unable to
grow enough to feed all.

ii. Due to the inefficient
irrigation system many areas
are not still cultivated.

iii. Large land holdings by
single landlords also
decrease the cultivated land.

iv. Extra rain can destroy the
crop of wheat.

v. Hot and sunny weather
can destroy it.

i. Pakistan has a
wide network of
rivers which could
supply water to
almost every place
if the authorities
manage it
properly.

ii. Further land
reforms should be
introduced through
which more people
can get the
ownership of the
land. It will also
increase annual
growth.

i. Nawabshah

ii. Bhawalagar.

iii. Okara.

Almost all of Indus
plain.

Cotton

Summer/Kharif.
Sowed in

March/ April
and harvested in
Sept./ Nov. It is
a 6 month crop.

It does not
require lots of
water but it
needs regular
irrigations.

Cotton requires
least amount of
water compared
to any other
crop.

Seed which is
used for oil
and animal
feed.

i. Nayab 78

ii.

It has a positive
impact on the trade
of Pakistan

i. It earns the
highest amount of
foreign exchange
for Pakistan. Two
thirds of the
country’s export
earnings are from
the cotton made-up
and textiles which
adds over $2.5
billion to the
national economy

ii. More than 50%
of total labor force
of Pakistan is
associated with
cotton related
industry.

i. Competition from other
countries e.g. India, Korea
and Egypt because they also
have same type of weather
conditions.

ii. Cotton is very fragile
crop it can get destroyed
easily for example extra rain
cold temperature can
destroy it.

iii. Plant diseases like leave
curl virus can affect the
annual growth.

i. Better strategies
to compete with
other countries and
capture markets.

ii. Educating
farmers about
different disease
which threatens the
cotton crop.

iii. Through better
irrigation system
more land should
be available for
cultivation.

i. Sanhgar

ii. Nawab Shah

iii. RahimYaar

iv. Bhawalpur

v. Khanewal

vi. Multan

108

Crop

Season

Water

required

products

H.Y.V

Impact on
trade

Problems

Solution

Main areas

Rice

Summer/ Kharif
Sowed in
March/ April
and harvested in
Sept./ Oct. It is a

4 month crop.

It is a special
crop which
needs maximum
amount of
water. 6 to 9
inches of water
level has to be
maintained
throughout 4
months.

Husk which is
used in
making card
boarders.

i. Basmati
ii. Irri 6

It has a positive
impact on the trade
of Pakistan

Pakistani rice has a
high demand
across the world.

i. Rice needs excess amount
of water, which is a problem
in Pakistan. So not many
lands are available for the
cultivation of rice due to the
lack of water.

ii. Pakistani exporters have
lost the confidence of buyers
in some markets due to their
unfair dealings.

i. Pakistan needs to
manage its water
resources properly
to maximize the
output.

ii. Our exporters
have to rebuild the
confidence of our
buyers.

i. Larkana.

ii. Thatta.

iii. Gujranwala

iv. Sialkot.

v. Sheikhupura

Sugar

cane

All round the
year. 4 to 6
months crop.
This crop can
repeated on the
same land up
three years.
Then the land
has to be
rejuvenated
through
fertilizers and
giving rest to

it.

It needs less
water than rice
but more than
other crops.

i. Bagasse is a
hard by
product of
sugarcane,
which is used
for making
paper,
chipboard
animal feed.

ii. Molases
a chemical
product used
in chemical
industries.

i. JN 88

ii. Thatta 10

It has a negative
impact on the trade
of Pakistan. Every
year sugar is
imported in large
quantities due to
the under growth
of Sugarcane.

i. Sugarcane requires large
amount of water due to it we
cannot cultivate it every
where.

ii. In the area where there is
ample supply of water,
farmers practice flood
irrigation due to which
water gets wasted.

iii. Sugarcane is not a final
product. It is used to make
sugar. After cutting
sugarcane starts losing its
sugar content, this decreases
the productivity of sugar
industry.

iv. The land and water
requirement of rice matches
sugarcane. That’s why
farmers prefer to grow rice
because it has more markets
value and it gives more
profit.

i. Better irrigation
techniques should
be adopted for
conservation of

water.

ii. To maximize
the output of sugar
industiy it should
be installed near
the crops.

iii. The

government should
compensate the
money which the
farmers lose when
they plant
sugarcane instead
of rice. These way
farmers would
grow more
sugarcane and the
balance of trade of
Pakistan would be

•_C_

i. Badin.

ii. Nawabshah.

iii. Rahimyar Khan

iv. Faisalabad.

v. Bhawalnagar.

Animal Farming in Pakistan

Animals

Method of
rearing

Out puts

Impact on
economy

Problems

Solutions

Main areas

Cow

i . Grazing.

ii. Stall feeding

i. Milk

ii. Meat

iii. Cheese

iv. Butter.

v. Leather

vi. Natural fertilizer

vii. Draft power.

Positive. Leather is one
of the foremost export
of Pakistan. The leather
industry is well
developed and earning
good amount of foreign
exchange for Pakistan.

The main problem we face is
overgrazing.

Stall feeding.

Almost all places in
Pakistan.

Goat

i. Grazing

ii. Stall feeding

i. Meat.

ii. Leather

Positive

Overgrazing

Stall feeding

Almost all places in
Pakistan.

Sheep

i. Grazing.

ii. Stall feeding

i. Meat

ii. Leather.

iii. Wool.

Positive.

Overgrazing

Stall feeding

Almost all places in
Pakistan

Chicken

Poultry farms

i. Meat.

ii. Eggs.

iii. Feathers (pillows
and quilts).

Positive.

i. Chicken is a very fragile bird
which needs extra care regarding
temperature control or diseases.

A farmer can loose the whole
flock in couple of day due to any
disease or change in temperature.

ii. There are some foreign
diseases which also are great
threat to chicken farming e.g.
bird flew, which are capable of
wiping out chicken across the
country.

i. Temperature has to
be controlled all the
time.

ii. Vaccination of
different diseases has
to be given to every
single chicken on
time.

Whole of Pakistan.

Abbotabad has come
up as a main area for
chicken farming in
recent years.

Camel

Grazing.

i. Draft power.

ii. Meat (on a very
low scale).

iii. Leather

Positive

There are no such problems
faced in camel farming.

Balochistan and Sindh.

Power resources:

Energy is the ability to do work.

Energy can neither be created nor be destroyed it can only change its form.

Importance of power generation for our Country:

i. In today’s life style everything depends upon electricity. It has become life line
of today’s world. Most of our daily activities depend upon electricity. For
example education, communication, travelling etc.

ii. In generating electricity Pakistan spends a lot of money. We generate electricity
through oil which is very expensive so through proper power generation we can
save money.

iii. Pakistan is a developing country, which means that its economy is shifting
towards

industry based. Industries cannot function without electricity.

iv. Without electricity there could be no communication with other countries. This
can affect business activity.

Renewable sources of Power:

Water:

In all the renewable resources hydal power generation is most efficient and most
powerful. It generates most electricity compared to any other renewable resource. For
the generation of electricity from rivers special water reservoirs are made called dams.
These dams are built in mountainous areas for this special purpose. The slope of
mountains support the generation of electricity.

In dams water is stored behind a massive wall which does not allow water to pass
through. This wall has flood gates which are operated on the basis of need. Other than
these gates dams have water tunnels fitted with turbine in them. A turbine is a
mechanical device which converts mechanical energy into electrical energy.

Pakistan is one of the developing countries of the world. Its requirement for electricity
is increasing at the rate of around 10% per anum. Due to this increase in the demand of
electricity Pakistan needs to pay more attention towards increasing the generation
electricity. On 20 th May 2008 the ministry of power and water declared that there is a
shortage of 4000 megawatts in Pakistan. This can only be overcome through proper
management of water resources and building more dams on suitable locations.

Dr. M. Moiz Khan

Assistant Professor

Dept, of History, University of Karachi
0322-2391591, moiz200@yahoo.com

111

Tidal wave energy:

It is also a very important source of renewable energy. The idea to utilize wave energy
is comparatively new. In it a specially designed turbine is fixed on the sea shore, which
works whenever waves bring water in it. It also works when water goes back into the
sea. Pakistan is fortunate is this aspect as well. We have a very long coastal belt which
can be used for utilizing tidal wave energy. Still no work is done in this regard in
Pakistan.

Wind Energy:

Wind is also a renewable source of energy. It like water also does not exhaust. However
there is a limitation to the use of this source of energy. It can work in those areas which
have suitable wind conditions or high winds. Fortunately for Pakistan there are many
such locations where we can install wind turbine for electricity generation. For example
long coastal belt of Pakistan is very suitable. Through this area we can supply
electricity to many villages and even support electricity supply of cities.

Presently Pakistan is not getting any benefit out of its wind resources. The government
of Pakistan needs to pay more attention towards this serious problem and find solutions
where ever possible.

Solar Energy:

Amongst all the renewable sources of energy solar energy generates the least amount of
electricity. Solar panels are built for this purpose. These panels are not very large in
size. They have a tube of metal in them which contains liquid. On the surface of these
panels small lenses are attached on them. These lenses concentrate sunlight on the tube
which heats it. When thetube gets heated the liquid in it boils, which is allowed to pass
through a special outlet attached with a small turbine. We cannot rely on electricity
generated by solar panel. Dr. M. Moiz Khan

Assistant Professor

Non Renewable resources: Dept, of History, University of Karachi

0322-2391591, moiz200@yahoo.com

These are the type of resources which cannot be used again and again like renewable
resources. They get exhausted after one time use. Major resources are

1. Oil:

Oil is the most important nonrenewable resource of electricity. It is also known as
mineral oil. Our daily life revolves around oil. In Pakistan oil is found in limited
quantities. To fulfill our local demand we import oil from different countries. Oil
extraction is the most expensive task. Pakistan cannot afford to search for mineral oil in
different location within its boundaries. That is why the government sells the right to
extract and use oil to foreign companies. This way we lose the ownership of it.

Dr. M. Moiz Khan

Assistant Professor

Dept, of History, University of Karachi
0322-2391591, moiz200@yahoo.com

112

Oil is extracted in crude form. Then it is refined for different purposes. Oil can be used
in different forms and there are many byproducts of it. For example; Wax, Plastics,
Rubber, Detergents, Furnace, oil, Grease, Diesel, Jet fuel, Bitumen

In Pakistan oil is imported in both forms, crude and refined. The refined oil cost much
more than crude oil. That is why the government of Pakistan is trying to construct more
refineries in different parts of the country. By importing crude oil and refining it locally
costs much less and we also get the byproducts. All the oil comes to Karachi then it is
transported to other parts of the country. There are three main modes of transportation
of oil i. pipeline ii. Oil tankers and iii. rail oil tankers. Pakistan has all of them. The
refined oil is usually transported through oil tankers to the locations where it needs to
be sold. The crude oil is transported to northern parts of the country through pipeline.

At midcountry we have a refinery which refines all the crude oil and supply it to the
nearby locations. At present the crude oil pipeline is transporting oil from Karachi to
Mahmud Kot. It is located on the border of Punjab and Baluchistan. There is oil refinery
near Mahmud Kot that is why the pipe line ends there.

The crude oil received from Karachi is refined in this refinery and sent to near about
areas for use. Another oil refinery is located in Potawar Plateau at Attock. This refinery
utilizes the oil extracted from the areas near to it. It does not receive crude oil imported
at Karachi. Today many different companies are searching for oil in Pakistan. PARCO
(Pak Arab Refinery Company) is most important one in establishing refineries and
transporting oil with in Pakistan. The future project of PARCO is ‘white oil pipeline’.
This pipeline will transport only refined oil to northern parts of the country because the
present pipeline cannot be used to transport refined oil.

Oil accounts for the largest bill compared to all the imports of Pakistan. It is true that
Pakistan cannot go ahead without oil but we need to utilize other resources available to
us. This way we can cut down the annual import of oil.

2. Gas:

Gas is one of those natural resources which are in abundance in Pakistan. First time gas
was discovered at the location of‘Sui’ in Northeastern Baluchistan. Since then the
people of Pakistan are utilizing it. Gas can be used for power generation also. Gas is
transported in two ways in Pakistan, i. pipelines and ii. gas tankers. The main gas
pipeline is running along the path of river Indus because most of the major towns and
cities of Pakistan are located there.

There are other gas fields in Pakistan which are located at Mari (lower Sind), Pirkoh
(Baluchistan), Meyal and Dhurnal (Potwar plateaus). Amongst them Mari is the largest
after Sui. There are two major companies working for the extraction and distribution of
gas Sui Southern Gas Company limited and Sui Northern Gas Company limited.

3. Coal:

Dr. M. Moiz Khan

Assistant Professor

Dept, of History, University of Karachi
0322-2391591, moiz200@yahoo.com

113

Coal is another type of fossil fuel and nonrenewable resource of energy. There are four
major types of coal and Pakistan has the lower three of them. Coal can be used as
alternate to oil in power generation. Recently new reserves have been discovered at
different locations in Pakistan. Now according to an estimate Pakistan has 7508 million
tons of proven coal deposits. This is many times more than the gas reserves of Pakistan.
Now the main problem is to excavate it and utilize it for generation of electricity.

The quality of coal is determined by its ability to produce heat. Anthracite is the highest
quality of coal. The second best is Bituminous which is further divided into two types
steam coal and coking coal. The third type of coal is Lignite which produces less heat
than the above types. The fourth and the last type is Peat. It is the lowest quality of coal
and it has less carbon contents than others.

Coal is transported through rail and road. However today Pakistan is not utilizing coal
to its best potential. In future if Pakistan wants to decrease its import bill then it needs
to replace oil power generation plants with coal plants.

4. Nuclear Power:

Nuclear power is the best non-renewable source of energy. It can generate more
electricity than any other resource of power generation. The developed countries have
overcome their energy crises through Nuclear energy. It is the energy released by an
atom of an element. The main problem in the use of Nuclear energy is its harmful
effects. It releases radiations which are harmful to all living things including humans.
Another problem is that the setup of Nuclear power plant it is very expensive. After
construction the nuclear power plant needs to be properly protected and the radiations it
emits have to be contained. Again this protection of the environment from power plant
is a very expensive task.

Dr. M. Moiz Khan

Assistant Professor

Dept, of History, University of Karachi
0322-2391591, moiz200@yahoo.com

5. Bio gas:

It is also a non-renewable source of energy. It is not widely used because it produces
very less amount of energy. The major use of this type of resource is adopted by China.
The people there are using bio gas to run their stoves and cook their food on it. The

methane produced by animal dung is tapped in a container and then diverted to the

desired out let. It also helps decreasing deforestation.

Dr. M. Moiz Khan

Assistant Professor

Dept, of History, University of Karachi
0322-2391591, moiz200@yahoo.com

114

Industries in Pakistan

Formal Sector

Informal Sector

It gives permanent employment to

1 .

It gives non-permanent employment.

people.

It does not need any skills or prior

It needs certain level of skills or

education.

education regarding particular job.

In this sector any one can employ a

In this sector a person is employed by an

person even self-employment can be seen.

institution.

In this sector employees do not have any

In this sector employees have regular

certain number of working hours. They

working hours.

can vary according to the need of work.

The salary of workers can vary.

The salary of workers is also fixed.

There is no guarantee of output.

The quality of output or products is

It can be found in both urban and rural

guaranteed.

areas but it is more practiced in rural

areas.

It can be found on urban areas.

Taxes are not calculated and not paid.

Taxes are properly calculated and paid.

The industries in this section many times

The industries under this section are

are not registered.

registered.

10.

The employees have rights in this sector.

10.

Often employees have no rights.

11.

Normally males are employed in it.

11.

In it women and children are also

employed.

12.

Usual work place is an office or a factory.

12.

Usual work place is a house or a small
shop like area.

13.

It requires large capital.

It requires small capital

Industrial Zones:

Dr. M. Moiz Khan

Assistant Professor

Dept, of History, University of Karachi
0322-2391591, moiz200@yahoo.com

For the growth of any country it is important that the government support and develop
industries. For this purpose Industrial Zones and Industrial Estates are established.
Pakistan needs many such estates across the country to support our economy. Some
special features of these special areas are as under;

115

1. Government assigns a particular area for the purpose of industrialization.
Usually these areas are away from population but not very far from city.

2. Special Industrial zones have all the basic necessities provided by the
government. All the basic infra-structure should be there, for example;

Roads

Dr. M. Moiz Khan

ii.

T elecommunication

Assistant Professor

iii.

Water Internet

Dept, of History, University of Karachi
0322-2391591, moiz200@yahoo.com

iv.

vi.

Banks for transactions

Electricity

Clinics etc

3. Government invite investors from within and outside the country and ask them
establish industries in these areas.

4. The industrialists are also given surety of profitable business activity and
favorable policies.

5. Government also ensures and provides full security to the investors and the
employees who are going to work over there.

6. Fire safety is also insured through installing a fire station in these areas.

7. Government also gives the investors’ tax holidays through which they can
produce more and earn more profit.

Advantages of Industrial Zones :

1. Through establishment of industrial zones people get employment. This way they
can earn their livelihood and support their family.

2. Industries are the main driving force of any economy. Industrial products are
sent to other countries through which we can earn foreign exchange.

3. By increasing exports the balance of payment could become better and in our
favor.

4. The money earned through industries can be spent on other areas for example
health, education, development, defense etc.

5. Inflation can be kept under control through industrialization.

6. Through industries people get an alternate and get busy in their life. This way
peace could be maintained in country. For example it is usually noticed that
people from rural areas are more involved in political chaos.

Small Scale and Cottage industries:

Along with the main industries it is important for any country to develop its small scale

and cottage industries. These industries usually come under the informal sector. They

are easy to establish and run. Features of these industries;

1. They are easy to establish and usually a much lesser amount compared to large
scale industry is needed.

2. They can be established in rural areas as well through which local people can get
employment and opportunity.

3. Small area is need for this purpose.

116

4. It is not necessary to have skilled labor working in these industries.

5. Large machinery is also not required for these types of industries.

6. In these industries women of rural areas can also work because in many cottage
industries they do not have to leave their homes and they can work there. For
example in case of handy crafts the agents place orders to these women and after
the completion of work they give them money and collect their product.

Why Pakistan need cottage and small scale industries?

1. Majority of the people of Pakistan live in rural areas due to which they are not
affected by the development of urban areas. These cottage and small scale
industries provide employment to rural population and give them a chance to
develop.

2. These industries produce many products which are locally used due to which we
do need to import them from other countries and we save foreign exchange.

3. In society like Pakistan women are not allowed to go out and work, but through
these industries they can be earning members of their families.

4. Some products made in cottage industries have a high value in international
markets. Like rugs, carpets, embroidered clothes, marble and onyx products,
furniture, sports goods, metal works etc. are sold at good value which provide
foreign exchange to our country. Around 30% of the total foreign exchange is
earned through cottage and small scale industries.

5. The equipment required for these industries is usually locally made and seldom
imported this way foreign exchange is saved.

6. When people living in rural areas will get employment at their door step then
they do not need to migrate to urban areas. This way rural urban migration can
be slowed and more urban centers can be developed. The problems faced by
urban areas like sanitation, water supply, education, transportation; pollution etc.
can be more control able.

Types of cottage and small scale industries in Pakistan:

1. Rugs

2. Carpets

3. Textiles

4. Metal works

5. Sports goods

6. Surgical goods

7. Wood work

8. Ceramics

9. Marble and onyx

10. Jewellery

11. Embroidery

12. Handmade traditional caps

Difficulties faced by Cottage and Small scale industries:

Dr. M. Moiz Khan

Assistant Professor

Dept, of History, University of Karachi
0322-2391591, moiz200@yahoo.com

117

1 .

The agents who work as link man between the craftsman and the buyer gets most
of the profit. Due to which the worker does not get the rightful share.

2. The lack of attention from government is a very huge difficulty these industries
face in Pakistan. Government need to promote these industries and encourage
people to be a part of them.

3. These days the shortage of electricity has become the foremost problem face by
Pakistan. In urban areas and large scale industries the investors and producers
are fighting this problem by generating their own electricity. However the people
associated with small scale and cottage industries cannot afford to generate their
own electricity. That is why in recent years these industries are most affected by
electricity.

4. Proper supply chain and marketing of the products of these industries is also a
huge problem. In large scale industries there are professionals who are
specifically hired to target these issues. On the other hand small scale and
cottage industries cannot render the services of professionals in this regard.
Government can help them in overcoming these issues.

5. The quality control is not present in these i ndustries due to which they suffe r a

lot. Dr. M. Moiz Khan

Assistant Professor

Dept, of History, University of Karachi

Tourism Industry* 0322 - 2391591 .moiz 200 @yahoo.com

Tourism can be a major source f foreign exchange. Many countries rely heavily on their
tourism industry. For example more than 70% of total income of Egypt is through
tourism. Mauritius, Maldives and other countries also target tourists to come to their
country. There are some elements which attract tourists from across the world, which
are as under;

i. Mountains, Glaciers, Climbing, Hiking, Skiing and scenic beauty.

ii. Sea, Beaches, Scuba diving, Snorkeling and other water sports.

iii. Desert, Desert safari, Rally, Camping etc.

iv. Archaeological sites, Ancient cities, Forts, Fortresses and other buildings

v. Wild life

Fortunately Pakistan has all of the above mentioned elements required for
attracting tourists from across the world. However we do not capitalize on the resources
and lose lots of foreign exchange every year which we can earn with little effort.

Steps through which we can develop tourism in our country:

The government is the main agency which can develop this potentially high
value industry. If a proper study is conducted then we can find out the importance and
impact of tourism industry on our economy. Pakistan is a weak economy and it should
grab every opportunity which comes towards it. Following are some basic steps through
which Pakistan can progress in this direction;

1. The first step the government has to maintain all the possible tourist sites. For
example, Mountainous areas, skiing locations, archaeological sites (Mohenjo
Daro, Harrappa, Taxila, Rohitas Fort, etc), beaches and other possible locations.

118

2 .

Then the next step is to market these locations to the world and make these
locations attractable to them

3. Proper hotels have to provide to the tourists near these locations so that they can
stay over there properly.

4. The major issue in our country is security. Without security no tourist industry
can survive. This is the most difficult task faced by our government to provide
security to the tourists and sites

Dr. M. Moiz Khan

Assistant Professor

Dept, of History, University of Karachi

0322-2391591, moiz200@yahoo.com

TRADE

Trade in simple form can be defined as the basic process of buying and selling goods
for the purpose of earning profit. In this process if someone earns less and spends more
than he has to face loss. The same process takes place in trade between countries. When
we talk about international trade it becomes more important to have positive or
profitable trade for the development of the country.

Pakistan is very unfortunate in terms of trade. Our trade is in constant decline and we
are unable to take favorable measures to earn profit or minimize loss through our trade.

The ways to earn profit through trade:

i. The first step any government should take to increase trade is to highlight the
goods which are specialty of that particular country.

ii. Then the government should target most favorable markets of those goods or
products across the world

iii. Then they should give incentives to the growers, producers, traders and exporters
of these goods and products so they export these things more through which the country
would earn profit.

iv. Generally the countries (e.g. Pakistan, Bangladesh Sri Lanka etc) which rely
more on the primary products have limited chances of growth. On the other hand those
countries which have developed secondary industries have huge opportunities to earn
profits for example USA, England, Japan, France, Germany etc.

v. Trade and industrial policies of any country should be for long term and stable.
This way the investors feel confident and production increases. For example in Pakistan
the policies change very rapidly which shakes the confidence of investors.

vi. The basic key in earning profit is the ratio of import and exports. If imports are
more and exports are less we lose money and if exports are more and imports are less

119

then we earn money. Balance of Payment = Exports - Imports. Unfortunately Pakistan
is facing the same problem of negative balance of payment.

Dr. M. Moiz Khan

Assistant Professor

Dept, of History, University of Karachi
0322-2391591, moiz200@yahoo.com

Benefits of profitable trade:

i. The national income of the country increases which affects everything.

ii. The standard of living of all citizens increases due to more opportunities of
earning and jobs.

iii. Education will improve with the input of money in educational system.

iv. The government will have more money to spend in health sector which will

improve the health facilities and other infrastructure.

v. More money means more spending on research and technology which will finally
contribute further towards more profits.

vi. With a healthy economic and trade system he employment level also increases
which is very important for any population.

vii. Infrastructure is provided to many new locations which also will finally
contribute towards trade.

Major exports of Pakistan:

Almost all the major foreign exchange earners of Pakistan are primary products. As
discussed earlier primary products have limitations due to which Pakistan is unable to
earn profit through trade.

i. Cotton and cotton based products are the highest contributors in our foreign
exchange. For example raw cotton, cotton yarn. Readymade garments, towels etc.

ii. Rice produced in Pakistan is very famous across the world and it contributes a
lot in our exports.

iii. Leather and leather products are also in demand outside Pakistan.

iv. Sports good made in Pakistan are of good quality and are exported on high scale
every year.

v. Surgical goods are also important export of Pakistan.

vi. Fish is also exported to different countries.

vii. Furniture and other handmade wooden products

viii. Marble and onyx made goods are also exported

Imports of Pakistan:

Pakistanis a developing country due to which we import many goods and other material
from other countries. The imports of Pakistan are much more than the exports. Some
major imports of Pakistan are as under:

i. Petroleum is the biggest import of Pakistan. In today’s world no country can
survive without fossil fuel. It is need in all walks of life. For example, in transportation,
industries and power generation. No one can imagine a life in modern world without
electricity.

out of Pakistan. _

Dr. M. Moiz Khan

Assistant Professor

Dept, of History, University of Karachi
0322-2391591, moiz200@yahoo.com

120

ii. Pakistan also imports all type of technology, which costs a lot. For example
whenever a factory is installed in Pakistan the technology comes from other countries
for which we pay huge amount of money.

iii. All the capital goods are also imported from across the world. For example
machinery used in factories and industries.

iv. Many types of electrical appliances like cell phones, T.V sets, A.Cs, Stereos etc
are also imported from other countries of the world.

v. Chemicals and chemical fertilizers are also imported on large scale.

vi. Every year a large number of cars is also imported which further affects the
balance of payment. Even the cars which are assembled here in Pakistan are not based
on local technology. That’s why we pay money to the parent companies (Suzuki,
Toyota, Honda etc) in the form of royalty.

vii. Tea is also imported from Africa, Sri Lanka etc.

viii. Raw Steel is imported from Europe which is consumed in steel mills and heavy
mechanical complex Taxila.

ix. Dairy products like cheese and butter are also imported from European countries.

Balancer of Payment

BoP = Exports - (Imports + Services rendered)

The BoP of Pakistan is constantly in negative because of our imports. There are many
ways we can reduce our import bill.

Balance of Trade = Exports - Imports

POPULATION

Population

Aspects to be covered:

i. Reason for high rate of population

ii. Problems cause by over population

iii. Causes of Unemployment

iv. Harmful effects of unemployment

v. Reasons for human occupation of a particular area

vi. Within country migration (Rural Urban migration)

vii. Migration to other parts of the world
Reasons for high rate of population growth:

Early marriages:

Early marriages are directly proportional to high birth rate because this increases
the availability of fertile time of married couples. The average fertility of a woman is

Dr. M. Moiz Khan

Assistant Professor

Dept, of History, University of Karachi
0322-2391591, moiz200@yahoo.com

121

from 14 till the age of 40. In rural areas girls are married at a very early age due to
which the couple have maximum span of re-productivity.

Child labor:

In Pakistan child labor is common and children are considered as means of
earing by parents. So they directly connect number of children with the increase in
family income which means more children more earners and more money.

Religious believes:

According to religious teachings every individual have its own “Rizq” from
Allah so they do not consider them as burden. They do not think about their quality of
life and education.

No Family Planning:

Family planning to prevent increase in child birth face resistance from religious
sections of society. Many consider it wrong to prevent child birth through artificial
means.

Illiteracy:

Majority of the population of Pakistanis still illiterate and they are unable to
comprehend the consequences of large family.

Desire for a son:

In Pakistan still sons are considered to be the carrier of family name. People feel
proud to have sons and those who have daughters are considered less in social status.
Many couples try to conceive a son for their family pride and sometimes they continue
producing children until they finally give birth to a son. In their desire to have a son
they give birth to many daughters which result in increase in population.

Migration:

Afghan war in 1979 resulted in immediate increase in population due to refugee
migration to Pakistan.

Causes of unemployment

Rural to Urban migration:

In today’s world a new trend is arising. People are migrating from rural areas to urban
centers. The reason behind this migration will explain in a separate topic later in this
chapter. Commonly people go for better employment opportunity, better life style,
health and education etc. Due to it the urban areas receive more people than they can
accommodate. This creates unemployment.

Political Instability:

Pakistan is unfortunately one of those countries which do not have a permanent and
stable political system. In 60 year history of Pakistan more than half years were

Dr. M. Moiz Khan

Assistant Professor

Dept, of History, University of Karachi
0322-2391591, moiz200@yahoo.com

Dr. M. Moiz Khan

Assistant Professor

Dept, of History, University of Karachi
0322-2391591, moiz200@yahoo.com

122

dominated by armed forces. In the rest political parties were fighting amongst each
other for rule. This creates uncertainty and decreases the chances of employment for
common people. For example call for strike can affect thousands of people who work on
daily wages. Then the change of government means the change of policies which also
creates unemployment. There is also a trend of political victimization means a new
government dismisses the people employed by the previous government.

Cultural restraints:

In our society people save money for ceremonies, due to which they cannot utilize that
money for their betterment and business. For example they save money for marriage
another ceremonies thorough out their lives and they spend it in one night. This
decreases the chances of investment and more investment is directly linked with more
employment opportunities.

Mechanization:

Today technology is providing quick solution for many problems but the same
technology is creating unemployment. Machines have potential of doing work for many
people at one time due to which employers are turning towards machines and getting rid
of people.

Computers, Tractors, Harvesters etc. are some machines which replace many men. he

Miss match of skills:

It is a great problem which is created due to lack of interest from governments. It
is the job of policy makers that they keep an eye on the rise and fall in the demand of
different sectors of professions. If there is a need of doctors in 2010 and every try to
become a doctor then in 2020 we will have more doctors than we need and they will
become unemployed. Just like that every profession becomes saturated after a particular
point and miss match of skilled professionals occur.

Slow process of development

Pakistan has a very slow process of development which means less jobs are
created every year compare to the increasing requirement.

High rate of population growth:

The rate of population growth is also responsible for unemployment. Population
is increasing at a very high rate and jobs are becoming less.

Problems caused by unemployment:

Increases in crime rate:

The major problem, which arises due to unemployment, is the increase in crime rate.
The unemployed people turn towards committing crimes when they get desperate to
earn a livelihood.

Low living standard:

Dr. M. Moiz Khan

Assistant Professor

Dept, of History, University of Karachi
0322-2391591, moiz200@yahoo.com

12.1

Child labor:
Brain drain:

Solutions:

Dr. M. Moiz Khan

Assistant Professor

Dept, of History, University of Karachi
0322-2391591, moiz200@yahoo.com

1. Private investment

2. Urbanization

It is a very important factor regarding providing employment. In Pakistan we have few
urban centers due to which more and more people come at one place. If we urbanize the
rural areas or make new cities like Gawadar then people would have more choices in-
front of them.

3. Career planning:

Most of the time it has been noticed that people in Pakistan follow trends due to we get
qualified people only for a particular type of work. So to prevent it the government has
to keep the track of demand and supply of qualified persons. It should tell people in
advance that what is required in Pakistan in near future.

Rural Urban Migration:

This is the most important problem Pakistan is facing today. Most of Pakistan consists
of rural areas. More and more people are trying to migrate to urban centers. The reasons
for this migration are as under;

Rural push Factors

Urban pull factors

Low quality of life and low living
standard.

High quality of life and high living

standards.

No health facilities available for people
in

High standard of health facilities
available

No proper education available for the

children of rural areas.

In Urban areas high and quality education

is available for children.

Lazy and monotonous life in rural areas.

On the other hand life in urban areas is

fast

In rural people go to sleep early and have

no night life or other forms of

entertainments.

Urban areas have rich night life and

entertainment places also attract many

villagers.

124

III. Pakistan and Changing Regional Apparatus

Geo-strategic position of Pakistan:

Pakistan has most unique geo-political position in the region. No other country across the
world has hostile countries on two sides of its border. Various features of geo-political
position of Pakistan are as under;

Dr. M. Moiz Khan

Assistant Professor

Dept, of History, University of Karachi

1. Hostile Countries! 0322-2391591.moiz200@yahoo.com

Two countries in the world who have shady and hostile relation with Pakistan are
Afghanistan and India. Both of them share borders with Pakistan. On the eastern border
exists India which has not been able to accept Pakistan since its independence and always
try to overpower Pakistan in bilateral matters and internal arena. On the other hand
Afghanistan is Pakistan’s Western neighbor who was the only country to oppose the
inclusion of Pakistan in United Nations.

2. Neighboring two major power:

Pakistan shares border with China one of the major socialist country of the world.
Secondly Russia is also very near to Pakistan. Before 1991c break up of USSR, the
distance between these two countries was around 24 kms of Afghanistan. This proximity
of Pakistan with these two major players of world politics was the reason that US and
other Western powers needed support of Pakistan in controlling the. The inclusion of
Pakistan in SEATO and CENTO was also due to this proximity.

3. Eastern border of Muslim block:

Out of 50 Muslim majority countries of the World most of them are located in
Asia. There is a cluster of Muslim countries starting from Turkey (part of Turkey is in
Europe) in the West. From Turkey if we move towards East the last country with Muslim
majority in this Muslim Bloc is Pakistan.

4. Bordering two most populous countries:

Pakistan share borders with the two most populous countries of the world, China
(nol) and India (no2).

5. Bordering biggest Shia Muslim state:

Pakistan shares border with Iran, which has the largest Shia population in the
world. Within the Muslim world there is a tug of war between the two major sects of
Islam, Sunni and Shia. Pakistan due to its geo-political position face dilemma of making
choices when it comes to choose between Iran and Saudi Arabia.

6. Closest sea route to Central Asian countries:

Many scholar are of the view that USSR attacked Afghanistan to get hold of the
sea ports of Pakistan, which they would attack once Afghanistan was captured by them.
If we observe the map of Asia ports of Pakistan, such as Pasni, Gawader, Ormara, Jiwani
and Karachi provide the shortest land route for the exports and imports to the countries
in North of Afghanistan. USSR was fell in 1991 and 14 new states became independent
which need to work for their economic prosperity.

125

Changing regional apparatus

In the arena of international politics there is no stability. Yesterday’s enemies
become today’s friends and vice versa. In modern times the international relations have
become more vibrant than any other time in the past. Various regimes taking control of
different countries means change in policies and foreign relations. In the last two decades
the transfer of power from BJP to Congress and back to BJP in India has tremendous
consequences on the external and internal matters of Pakistan. In India the elections are
fueled by the show of hatred towards Pakistan.

On the other hand politics in Afghanistan is also not polite towards Pakistan.
Afghanistan never accepted the demarcation of Duran Line. Since its announcement they
have a position that it has wrongfully taken land away from Afghanistan and given it in
India. Later when Pakistan became independent they still have the claim over many parts
of Pakistan. Even Pakistan there are many

Dr. M. Moiz Khan

Assistant Professor

Dept, of History, University of Karachi

0322-2391591, moiz200@yahoo.com

IV. Nuclear Program of Pakistan, its Safety
and Security; International Concerns

“Early Years

Atoms for Peace symbol, 1955

Pakistan began its nuclear efforts during the 1950s as an energy program. It was
prompted in large part by the United States’ “Atoms for Peace” program, which sought
to spread nuclear energy technology across the globe. In 1956, the Pakistani government
created the Atomic Energy Commission (PAEC) to lead the new program. The United
States gave Pakistan its first reactor—the five megawatt Pakistan Atomic Research
Reactor (PARR-1)—in 1962.

During this early period, PAEC chairman Ishrat Usmani devoted government
resources to training the next generation of Pakistani scientists. Usmani founded the
Pakistan Institute of Nuclear Sciences and Technology (PINSTECH) in 1965 and sent
hundreds of young Pakistani students to be trained abroad.

Although Pakistan claimed that its nuclear program was only pursuing peaceful
applications of atomic energy, there were signs that its leadership had other intentions.
This fact was particularly evident in wake of the 1965 Indo-Pakistani War, which ended
in a nominal victory for India. “If India builds the bomb, we will eat grass or leaves, even
go hungry, but we will get one of our own,” proclaimed then-Minister of Foreign Affairs
Zulfikar Ali Bhutto.

Weapons Development

126

Lieutenant general A. A. K. Niazi signs the Pakistani Instrument of Surrender,
December 16, 1971 In 1971, war once again broke out between India and Pakistan. The
conflict began when Pakistan conducted preventative strikes against Indian airfields
which nonetheless failed to seriously cripple India’s Air Force. In response, India
launched a ground campaign in support of the ongoing secession movement in East
Pakistan, which would soon become independent Bangladesh. Pakistan sustained heavy
losses, and almost 100,000 Pakistani soldiers were taken prisoner. Within two weeks,
Pakistan surrendered.

The humiliation of 1971 was a turning point in Pakistan’s decision to build an
atomic bomb. In 1972, Zulfikar Ali Bhutto—soon to be elected Prime Minister—called a
meeting in which he instructed top Pakistani scientists to build the bomb. Physicist Munir
Ahmad Khan was among the scientists invited to the meeting. Trained in the United States
at the Illinois Institute of Technology, Khan had worked at Argonne National Laboratory
and served as head of reactor engineering for the International Atomic Energy Agency
(IAEA). He was quickly named chairman of PAEC and would lead the new direction of
Pakistan’s nuclear program.

Around the same time, Pakistan began receiving considerable international support
for its nuclear program. Canada, for example, provided a 137-megawatt heavy water
nuclear reactor known as Canada Deuterium Uranium (CANDU). The reactor was
installed at the Karachi Nuclear Power Plant (KANUPP) and was soon producing
weapons grade plutonium. France likewise agreed to supply the Chashma plutonium
separation plant. Nevertheless, the international community cracked down on the
proliferation of nuclear materials after India’s first nuclear test in 1974. Canada withdrew
its support for Pakistan in 1976, while France never completed the Chashma plant. A
plutonium bomb suddenly seemed like a distant reality.

Dr. M. Moiz Khan

Assistant Professor

Dept, of History, University of Karachi

0322-2391591, moiz200@yahoo.com

Project-706

A. Q. Khan, courtesy of Wikimedia Commons/Waiza Rafiqueln December 1974,
however, the course of the Pakistani bomb drastically changed with the return of German-
trained metallurgist Abdul Qadeer Khan, more commonly known as A. Q. Khan. He had
spent the previous four years working for URENCO, a nuclear fuel company, on uranium
enrichment plants in the Netherlands and brought his vast knowledge of gas centrifuges
to Pakistan. Over several decades, Khan would proliferate this technology to a whole host
of would-be nuclear powers, including Iran, North Korea, and Libya.

Although he was never officially head of Pakistan’s nuclear program, Khan played
a vital role in its success. In 1976, he was put in charge of the Engineering Research
Laboratories in Kahuta, which was later named the Khan Research Laboratories (KRL).
The site of a uranium enrichment plant, KRL offered Pakistan a second path to the bomb
via highly enriched uranium (HEU) rather than plutonium. Khan’s laboratory was mostly
autonomous from PAEC and the uranium bomb project even had a special codename:
Project-706.

127

Although Project-706 began under Prime Minister Zulfikar Ali Bhutto, his
influence over the project was short-lived. In 1977, General Muhammad Zia ul-Haq took
power in a coup d’etat and hanged Bhutto in 1979. The military took control of the nuclear
program and it remains under military control today despite Pakistan later returning to a
civilian government.

In 1979, the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan had a significant impact for Pakistan.
Under President Ronald Reagan, the United States gave military support to the Afghan
mujahideen to fight the Soviet Union. Pakistan—a neighbor of Afghanistan with crucial
supply routes—proved to be an essential ally in this effort. As a result, the United States
largely turned a blind eye to the Pakistani nuclear program. In 1982, for example, Zia
made an official visit to the United States. “He’s a good man,” wrote Reagan in his diary.
“Gave me his word they were not building an atomic or nuclear bomb. He’s dedicated to
helping the Afghans & stopping the Soviets” (Reed and Stillman 249).The United States
discovered Dutch-designed gas centrifuges in Libya which were provided by A. Q. Khan

In 1985, the U.S. Congress passed the Pressler Amendment, which established a
protocol for sanctions against Pakistan if it crossed certain “red lines,” such as
manufacturing highly enriched uranium and making a fissionable bomb core. The law
was designed to allow the United States to maintain good relations with Pakistan, but it
ultimately forced the American government to implement sanctions in the 1990s.

Beginning in the early 1980s, Pakistan conducted a series of “cold tests,” which
involved a nuclear device without fissile materials. It conducted over 20 additional cold
tests during the next decade. Pakistan also strengthened its alliance with China against
India. Among other assistance to Pakistan’s nuclear program, the Chinese government
invited Pakistani scientists to Beijing. On May 26, 1990, China tested a Pakistani bomb
(Pak-1) on Pakistan’s behalf at the Lop Nur test site. The so-called “Event No. 35” was
most likely a uranium implosion bomb, a derivative of the Chinese CHIC-4 design.
Pakistan also reached an agreement with North Korea for Nodong ballistic missiles in
exchange for Pakistani uranium enrichment technology.

Dr. M. Moiz Khan

Assistant Professor

Dept, of History, University of Karachi

0322-2391591, moiz200@yahoo.com

Nuclear Tests

Pakistani scientists at the Ras Koh test site, 1998During the 1990s, Pakistan
prepared for possible testing. Project officials selected the Ras Koh Hills in the
southwestern Baluchistan province as a test site. Engineers drilled test shafts deep into
the ground in preparation. Pakistan also vastly improved its missile technology,
developing the Ghauri medium-range ballistic missile, a derivate of the North Korean
Nodong.

Prime Minister Mohammad Nawaz Sharif faced enormous pressure to authorize
nuclear tests after India conducted its own tests in May 1998. “We in Pakistan will
maintain a balance with India in all fields,” said Foreign Minister Gohar Ayub Khan, a
proponent of testing. “We are in a headlong arms race on the subcontinent.” International
leaders, however, called on Sharif not to respond to the Indian tests. The United States

128

even offered a repeal of the Pressler Amendment and additional military aid should
Pakistan refrain from testing.

In the end, however, Pakistani officials went ahead with preparations for the test—
codenamed Chagai-I—when Sharif gave the order “Dhamaka kar dein” (conduct the
explosion). A military escort flew the bomb parts to Ras Koh, where they were assembled
and placed in the test shafts along with diagnostic cables. On May 28, 1998—less than
three weeks after India’s nuclear tests—Pakistan exploded its first devices at the Ras Koh
test site. “Today, we have settled a score and have carried out five successful nuclear
tests,” announced Sharif. With a total yield of 9 kilotons, however, there is some debate
about how many bombs were actually tested (Reed and Stillman 257). Two days later,
Pakistan conducted an additional test, Chagai-II.

Dr. M. Moiz Khan

Assistant Professor

Dept, of History, University of Karachi
0322-2391591, moiz200@yahoo.com

Pakistan Today

Ghauri missiles on display in Karachi, 2008. Courtesy of Wikimedia
Commons/SyedNaqui90Unlike India, Pakistan does not have a no first use doctrine
regarding its nuclear arsenal. In the aftermath of the 1998 tests, Prime Minister Sharif
affirmed that the Pakistani bomb was “in the interest of national self-defense...to deter
aggression, whether nuclear or conventional.” In 2002, President Pervez Musharraf
declared that Pakistan would “respond with full might” if attacked.

After 9/11, the United States grew very concerned that political instability and
religious radicalism in Pakistan could give non-state actors such as the Taliban access to
nuclear materials. With help from the West, the Pakistani government took steps to
improve its nuclear security, although concerns remain today.

The civilian National Command Authority (NCA) maintains command and control
of Pakistan’s nuclear weapons. As of 2016, the Nuclear Threat Initiative estimates the
Pakistani arsenal at 100-120 warheads, but with materials for more than 200.” 43

International Security Concerns:

The international community and specifically the western world has always raised
an eyebrow over the capacity of Pakistan to safe guard its nuclear technology and arsenal.
Since the initiation of the nuclear program in Pakistan they have always created hurdles
and questioned the security. There are two major concerns;

1. Nuclear weapons falling in the hands of terrorists:

Since the talibinization during the Afghan War the security of Pakistan has always
been tested by the terrorist organizations. After the end of the war the power vacuum in
Afghan politics gave way to Taliban government. Pakistan in the early years had a canny
relations with the Taliban regime. However the September 11, 2001 attacks on twin
towers in USA changed the nature of the relations.

43 The whole part of history of Nuclear Program of Pakistan has been taken from the following web-page
https://www.atomicheritage.org/history/pakistani-nuclear-program

129

Pakistan in 2001 pledged full support to US and NATO forces in their War on
Terror in Afghanistan. This alliance was seen a breach of unwritten accord between the
Pakistan and Afghanistan. Taliban declared war on USA and all of its allies including
Pakistan. Due to the unique geographic terrain between Pakistan and Afghanistan the
biggest challenge since then and until now is to prevent the unwanted commute of people.

Pakistan has witnessed numerous terrorist attacks orchestrated from Afghanistan.
Later Tehreek e Taliban Pakistan also started to challenge the state’s authority. The west
became skeptical that the nuclear arsenal of Pakistan might fall into the hands of the
terrorists. This fear has been expressed by international community over and over again.
This suspicion has prevented Pakistan from becoming a member of nuclear supplier
group.

2. Extremists or religious parties taking control over government:

In electoral politics of Pakistan there are many religious political parties. Usually
these parties do not have a solid electoral base and their vote bank is sporadic. However
we have seen that when these religious political groups formulate an alliance for
contesting national elections they become a formidable force. There are many examples
of such alliances.

In 1977 PNA (Pakistan National Alliance) was formed lead by Jamat e Islami.
Later in 1988 and later elections IJI (Islami Jamhori Itehad) was formed. This alliance
was responsible for making Nawaz Sharif PM for the first time in 1990. Then in 2002
election MMA (Mutahida Majlis e Amal) was formed which emerged as the second
largest party in National Assembly and formed opposition lead by Maulana Fazlul
Rehman.

3. Proliferation to countries seeking nuclear technology:

This fear is more real than the others. It has been debated across the world and
within Pakistan that nuclear technology has been forwarded to other countries by the state
of some individuals. There was a great crises in 2004 when the news of nuclear
proliferation shock the world.

“Spy satellites tracked the shipment as it wended its way to Dubai, where it was
relabeled "used machinery" and transferred to a German-owned ship, the BBC China.
When it headed through the Suez Canal, bound for Libya, the order went out from
Washington to have it seized, according to accounts from American officials.

That seizure led to the unraveling of a trading network that sent bomb-making
designs and equipment to at least three countries — Iran, North Korea and Libya — and
has laid bare the limits of international controls on nuclear proliferation.” 44

Internal Security Measures and agencies:

44 https://www.nytimes.com/2004/02/12/world/a-tale-of-nuclear-proliferation-how-pakistani-built-his-
network.html

130

Pakistan went on to ratify the Convention on the Physical Protection of Nuclear
Material (CPPNM) in 2016 and is also a member of the Global Initiative to Combat
Nuclear Terrorism (GICNT).

Pakistan created the National Command Authority (NCA) in 2000 to manage and
safeguard nuclear assets and related infrastructures. The chairman of NCA is PM, and members
are, defence minister, foreign minister, finance minister, interior minister and defence
production minister along with chiefs of all armed forces and chairman of joint chief of staff.

country is also a signatory of the UN Security Council Resolution-1540 to whom
they submit regular reports explaining the various measures being taken for the security
of sensitive nuclear materials.

The Strategic Plan Division was formulated during the early years of Musharaf
era. It is headed by armed forces and it regulates research, production, development, and
manufacturing of Ballistic and cruise missiles.

Dr. M. Moiz Khan

Assistant Professor

Dept, of History, University of Karachi
0322-2391591, moiz200@yahoo.com

in place since 1965, when the first

HISTORY OF PNRA

“The nuclear regulatory infrastructure has been
research reactor PARR-I was commissioned. The nuclear regulatory regime further
improved when the first nuclear power plant was commissioned in 1971 at Karachi. A
nuclear safety and licensing division was established in PAEC HQ which functioned as
the de facto regulatory body till it was upgraded to " Directorate of Nuclear Safety and
Radiation Protection" (DNSRP) after the promulgation of Pakistan Nuclear Safety and
Radiation Protection Ordinance 1984.

Pakistan signed the International Convention on Nuclear Safety in 1994, as a result
of which, it became obligatory on the part of the Government of Pakistan to establish an
independent nuclear regulatory body entrusted with the implementation of the legislative
and regulatory framework governing nuclear power and radiation use in the country, and
further to separate the regulatory functions from the promotional aspects of the nuclear
programme. As a transitory measure Pakistan Nuclear Regulatory Board (PNRB), within
PAEC was established to oversee the regulatory affairs. Complete separation of
promotion and regulatory functions and responsibilities was achieved in 2001, when the
President of Pakistan promulgated the Pakistan Nuclear Regulatory Authority Ordinance

No.Ill of 2001.

Consequently, Pakistan Nuclear Regulatory Authority (PNRA) was created,
dissolving the Pakistan Nuclear Regulatory Board and Directorate of Nuclear Safety &
Radiation Protection. It established PNRA as a competent and independent body for the
regulation of nuclear safety, radiation protection, transport and waste safety in Pakistan,
and also empowered it to determine the extent of civil liability for damage resulting from
any nuclear incident.

The Authority devises, adopts, makes and enforces such rules, regulations, orders
or codes of practice for nuclear safety and radiation protection as may, in its opinion, be
necessary. It plans, develops and executes comprehensive policies and programmes for
the protection of life, health and property against the risk of ionizing radiation, and
regulates the radiation safety aspects of:

131

Exploitation of any radioactive ore; Production, import, export, transport,
possession, processing, reprocessing, use, sale, transfer, storage or disposal of nuclear
substance, radioactive material or any other substance as the Authority may, by
notification in the official Gazette, specify; and Equipment used for production, use or
application of nuclear energy for generation of electricity; or any other uses.” 45

V. Regional Economic Cooperation
(SAARC,ECO,SCO) and the Role of Pakistan

Dr. M. Moiz Khan

Assistant Professor

Dept, of History, University of Karachi

0322-2391591, moiz200@yahoo.com

SAARC (South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation)

In the Post World War II era various countries of the world have started to get
much closer relations than any other time in the history. In this scenario the countries
with geographical proximity started to flock together for mutual economic progress. The
best example of this cooperation is the formation of EU. Since the establishment of EU
all the member countries have shown immense economic progress.

Following suit many other countries located in different parts of the world also
tried their luck to form organizations based on mutual cooperation in regions. SAARC is
one such attempt by the underdeveloped and developing economies of the South Asia.
The idea was under discussion for some time, however the finalization took place on 8
December 1985 when delegates from seven nations of South Asia signed a charter in
Dhaka.

The initial seven nations were Pakistan, Sri Lanka, India, Bhutan, Nepal, Maldives
and Bangladesh. The objectives of the association were;

“The objectives of the Association as outlined in the SAARC Charter are: to promote the
welfare of the peoples of South Asia and to improve their quality of life; to accelerate
economic growth, social progress and cultural development in the region and to provide
all individuals the opportunity to live in dignity and to realize their full potentials; to
promote and strengthen collective self-reliance among the countries of South Asia; to
contribute to mutual trust, understanding and appreciation of one another's problems; to
promote active collaboration and mutual assistance in the economic, social, cultural,
technical and scientific fields; to strengthen cooperation with other developing countries;
to strengthen cooperation among themselves in international forums on matters of
common interests; and to cooperate with international and regional organizations with
similar aims and purposes.” 46

45 https://www.pnra.org/history.html

46 http://saarc-sec.org/about-saarc

1.12

Later after almost 22 years Afghanistan was made a member of SAARC during
the 14 th summit of SAARC held in Delhi, India in April 2007. Until now 18 summits
have been held since its creation. The list of all the summits is as under;

1. Held in Dhaka 6-8 December 1985

2. Bengaluru, India, 16-17 November 1986

3. Kathmandu, Nepal, 2-4 November 1987

4. Islamabad, 29-31, December 1988

5. Male, Maldives, 21-23 November 1990

6. Colombo, Sri Lanka, 21 December 1991

7. Dhaka, Bangladesh, 10-11 April 1993

8. New Delhi, 2-2-4 May 1995

9. Male, Maldives, 12-14 May 1997

10. Colombo, Sri Lanka, 29-31 July 1998.

11. Kathmandu, Nepal, 4-6 January 2002.

12. Islamabad, Pakistan, 4-6 January 2004.

13. Dhaka, Bangladesh, 12-13 November 2005.

14. New Delhi, India, 3-4 April 2007.

15. Colombo, Sri Lanka, 1-3 April 2008.

16. Thimphu, Bhutan, 28-29 April 20010.

17. Addu, Maldives, 10-11 November 2011.

18. Kathmandu, Nepal, 26-27 November 2014.

19. Was scheduled in Pakistan abut due to Uri Attacks. Many countries refused to attend
it.

The main secretariat of SAARC is located in Kathmandu, Nepal. The sub committees of
centers are located in different countries.

1. SAARC Agriculture Centre (SAC), Dhaka

2. SAARC Energy Centre (SEC), Islamabad

3. SAARC Cultural Centre (SCC), Colombo, Sri Lanka

4. SAARC Tuberculosis and HIV/AIDS Centre (STAC), Kathmandu

5. SAARC Disaster Management Centre (SDMC), India

Dr. M. Moiz Khan

Assistant Professor

Dept, of History, University of Karachi
0322-2391591, moiz200@yahoo.com

ECO (Economic Cooperation Organization)

Dr. M. Moiz Khan

Assistant Professor

Dept, of History, University of Karachi
0322-2391591, moiz200@yahoo.com

“Economic Cooperation Organization (ECO) is an inter-governmental regional
organization encompassing countries from Europe, Caucuses and Central Asia, Middle
East and South Asia with more than 460 million inhabitants and over 8 million square
kilometers connecting Russia to Persian Gulf and China to Europe. The overall objective
of the Organization is the sustainable economic development of its Member States and
the Region as a whole.

Established as Regional Cooperation for Development (RCD) in 1964 by Iran,
Pakistan and Turkey, the Organization was renamed as “ECO” in 1985. In 1992 and in

133

the aftermath of collapse of Soviet Union, the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan and six
former Soviet Republics, namely, Republic of Azerbaijan, Republic of Kazakhstan,
Kyrgyz Republic, Republic of Tajikistan, Turkmenistan and Republic of Uzbekistan also
joined the Organization, forming one of the biggest regional blocs in Asia and beyond.

Over the past three decades or so, the ECO Member States have been collaborating
to accelerate the pace of regional development through their common endeavors. Besides
shared cultural and historic affinities, they have been able to use the existing
infrastructural and business links to further fortify their resolve to transfer their hopes
and aspirations into a tangible reality. In March 2017, Heads of States/Government of the
Member States in their 13th Summit in Islamabad endorsed “ECO Vision 2025” where
main directions of the ECO in the years to come are drawn.” 47

Objectives of ECO

1. Sustainable economic development of Member States;

2. Progressive removal of trade barriers and promotion of intraregional trade; the
Greater role of ECO region in the growth of world trade; Gradual integration of
the economies of the Member States with the world economy;

3. Development of transport & communications infrastructure linking the Member
States with each other and with the outside world;

4. Economic liberalization and privatization;

5. Mobilization and utilization of ECO region's material resources;

6. Effective utilization of the agricultural and industrial potentials of ECO region.

7. Regional cooperation for drug abuse control, ecological and environmental
protection and strengthening of historical and cultural ties among the peoples of
the ECO region; and

8. Mutually beneficial cooperation with regional and international organizations.

9. Sovereign equality of the Member States and mutual advantage;

10. Linking of national economic, development plans with ECO's immediate and long¬
term objectives to the extent possible;

11. Joint efforts to gain freer access to markets outside the ECO region for the raw
materials and finished products of the Member States;

12. Effective utilization of ECO institutions, agreements and cooperative
arrangements with other regional and international organizations including
multilateral financial institutions;

13. Common endeavors to develop a harmonized approach for participation in regional
and global arrangements;

14. Realization of economic cooperation strategy; and Exchanges in educational,
scientific, technical and cultural fields

Lists of Summits

1st 16-17 February 1992, Iran, Tehran
2nd 6-7 May 1993 Turkey, Istanbul

47 http://www.eco.int/general_content/86055-History.html?t=General-content

Dr. M. Moiz Khan

Assistant Professor

Dept, of History, University of Karachi
0322-2391591, moiz200@yahoo.com

134

3rd 14-15 May 1995, Pakistan, Islamabad
4th 14 May 1996,Turkmenistan, Ashgabat

Extraordinary 14 May 1997, Turkmenistan, Ashgabat
5th 11 May 1998,Kazakhstan, Almaty
6th 10 June 2000, Iran, Tehran
7th 14 October 2002, Turkey, Istanbul
8th 14 September 2004, Tajikistan, Dushanbe
9th 5 May 2006, Azerbaijan, Baku
10th 11 March 2009, Iran, Tehran
11th 23 December 2010, Turkey, Istanbul
12th 16 October 2012, Azerbaijan, Baku
13th 1 March 2017, Pakistan, Islamabad

SCO (Shanghai Cooperation Organization)

After the breakup of USSR in 1991 Central Asian Republics (CARs) emerged.
China initiated a dialogue between the Russian and three newly established states namely
Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan. On 26 April 1996 five countries namely China,
Russia and the three countries mentioned earlier, signed an agreement to have mutual
security. This setup was called Shanghai Five.

Later in 15 June 2001, Uzbekistan joined in along with the five original members
Shanghai Five was transformed into Shanghai Cooperation Organization (SCO).

Dr. M. Moiz Khan

Assistant Professor

Dept, of History, University of Karachi
0322-2391591, moiz200@yahoo.com

VI. Civil-Military Relations in Pakistan

Since independence Pakistan has had a very strong army. This was probably the
only institution that had the strongest base and discipline. Army as an institution sustained
the transition from British Indian Army to Pakistan Army. The first two Chiefs of army
were British due to the unavailability of a high ranking officer to take the charge. On the
eve of the independence Genera Sir Frank Walter Messervy until February 1948. Later
Genera Douglas Gracey took the charge of Pak Army until 1951.

Finally Pakistan saw its first Muslim and Pakistani COAS in the form of Field
Marshal Ayub Khan when he was promoted to the rank of Lt. General by the hands of
PM Liaquat Ali Khan.

135

VII. Economic Challenges in Pakistan

Challenges

1. Mounting debt

2. Rising imports, declining exports, negative balance of payment

3. Excessive taxation and regulations

4. Lack of political consensus

5. Low savings, consumption-oriented society

6. Lower investment and tax collection

7. Increased government borrowing

8. Shrinking share in world trade

9. Governance and implementation weaknesses

10. Uncertainty due to lack of continuity of policies

11. Corruption

12. Lluctuating remittances

13. Shut downs and political agitation

14. Devaluation

15. Loreign debts

VIII. Non-Traditional Security Threats in

Pakistan: Role of Non-State Actors

Climate Change:

Pakistan has been blessed with most of the climatic conditions the nature has to
offer. It was mountains with glaciers, extensive rivers, long coast line, five desserts, two
major plateaus and fertile plains. However this blessing become a source of trouble when
natural disasters due to climate change take place.

“Pakistan is ranked on 7th position, with a death toll of 523.1 lives per year i.e.
10,462 lives lost in 20 years and economic losses worth US $ 3.8 billion — equivalent to
0.605 per cent of the GDP in the 20 year period. During this time, Pakistan had suffered
from 141 extreme weather events — let it be cyclones, storms, floods, Glacial Lake
Outburst Lloods (GLOLs) and heat waves, etc. In last year’s long-term index (1996 to
2015 average), Pakistan held the same 7th position.” 48

Population Growth:

Pakistan has the 6 th largest population in the world and its growth rate is around
2%. In comparison to the resources, Pakistan has a huge population. Around 40% of

48 https://www.dawn.com/news/1369425

136

population live below poverty line 49 . Poverty further creates multiple issues such as
crimes, rural urban migration etc. Secondly unemployment in Pakistan has always been a
major challenge for all the governments.

Food Security:

Pakistan ranks 106 out of 119 countries listed in Global Hunger Index with a score
of around 33. Around 25 to 30 % population of Pakistan are suffering from malnutrition.
45 to 50% children under five have stunted growth. Due these alarming stats a large
number of Pakistanis loose the battle of life against hunger rather than any other threat.

We have seen media reports specifically from Tharparker region where hundreds
of infants die due to malnutrition and shortage of food.

Water Security:

Today one of the most important aspect of national security is the water scarcity.
The shortage of supply of water can result into worst kind of droughts and famines. In the
past we have seen that Indian Sub-Continent has faced worst kind of droughts and famine.
One such recent example was the great famine in Bengal in 1940 during the Second World
War.

Pakistan’s water supply in unique in nature. There is a main river, Indus which has
Eastern and Western tributaries. The Eastern tributaries and the river Indus originate in
the Himalayas situated in Indian territories and Indian held Kashmir. India since the
independence of Pakistan has shown aggression on the water supply. India stopped the
water supply immediately after independence. Due to which Pakistan had to face crises
in term of agricultural production in the West Pakistan territories. The matter was
resolved after the intervention of World Bank in 1960.

Even today Pakistan is facing aggression on its water from India. Other than that
the drainage patterns of Pakistan has to be modernized to conserve water. Every year a
considerable quantity of water is wasted due to the lack of reservoirs. Recently the Chief
Justice of Pakistan has taken an initiative in 2018 to construct dams on river Indus.

Cyber Attacks:

Recently the cyber-attacks have increased all across the world. In this scenario
Pakistanis no exception. In October and November 2018 hacker attacked banking system
of Pakistan and stole billions of rupees. Eventually the state bank had to discontinue the
online payments for Pakistani bank for some time to handle the situation.

Non-State Actors:

Today terrorism has taken ad international form. In the last three decades
international organizations have mushroomed across the world which have challenged the
traditional model of security.

49 http://www.pk.undp.org/content/pakistan/en/home/presscenter/pressreleases/2016/06/20/paldstan-s-new-
poverty-index-reveals-that-4-out-of-10-pakistanis-live-in-multidimensional-poverty.html

137

IX. Pakistan’s Role in the Region

X. Palestine Issue

Dr. M. Moiz Khan

Assistant Professor

Dept, of History, University of Karachi
0322-2391591, moiz200@yahoo.com

XI. Changing Security Dynamics for Pakistan:
Challenges to National Security of Pakistan

XII. Political Evolution Since 1971

XIII. Pakistan and US War on Terror

XIV. Foreign Policy of Pakistan Post 9/11

XV. Evolution of Democratic System in

Pakistan

Dr. M. Moiz Khan

Assistant Professor

Dept, of History, University of Karachi
0322-2391591, moiz200@yahoo.com

XVI. Ethnic Issues and National Integration

XVII. Hydro Politics; Water Issues in

Domestic and Regional Context

138

XVIII. Pakistan’s National Interest

XIX. Challenges to Sovereignty

XX. Pakistan’s Energy Problems and their
Effects

XXI. Pakistan’s Relations with Neighbors
excluding India

XXII. Pakistan and India Relations Since 1947

XXIII. Kashmir Issue

XXIV. The war in Afghanistan since 1979 and
its impact on, and challenges to Pakistan, in
the Post 2014 era.

XXV. Proxy Wars: Role of External Elements

XXVI. Economic Conditions of Pakistan, the
Most Recent Economic Survey, the Previous
and Current Budgets, and the Problems and
Performance of Major Sectors of Economy.

119

XXVII. The Recent Constitutional and Legal
Debates, the Latest Constitutional
Amendments and Important Legislations,
Legal Cases and the Role of Higher
Courts.

XXVIII. The Prevailing Social Problems of
Pakistan and the Strategies to Deal with
Them, Poverty, Education, Health and
Sanitation.

140

List of Secretary of state for India

1. Edward Henry Stanley, Lord Stanley

1. Edward Henry Stanley, Lord Stanley (September 2, 1858 - June 11, 1859)

2. Sir Charles Wood (June 18, 1859 - February 16, 1866)

(resigned after being injured in a hunting accident)

3. George Frederick Samuel Robinson, 3rd Earl de Grey

(February 16, 1866 - June 26, 1866)

4. Robert Arthur Talbot Gascoyne-Cecil, Viscount Cranborne

(July 6, 1866 -March 8, 1867)

5. Sir Stafford Henry Northcote (March 8, 1867 - December 1, 1868)

6. George Douglas Campbell, 8th Duke of Argyll

(December 9, 1868 - February 17, 1874)

7. Robert Arthur Talbot Gascoyne-Cecil, 3rd Marquess of Salisbury

(February 21, 1874 - April 2, 1878)

8. Gathorne Gathorne-Hardy, 1st Viscount Cranbrook

(April 2, 1878 - April 21, 1880)

9. Spencer Compton Cavendish, Marquess of Harrington

(April 28, 1880 - December 16, 1882)

10. John Wodehouse, 1st Earl of Kimberley (December 16, 1882 - June 9, 1885)

11. Lord Randolph Churchill (June 24, 1885 - January 28, 1886)

12. John Wodehouse, 1st Earl of Kimberley (February 6, 1886 - July 20, 1886)

13. Sir Richard Assheton Cross, 1st Viscount Cross (1886)

(August 3, 1886 - August 11, 1892)

14. John Wodehouse, 1st Earl of Kimberley (August 18, 1892 - March 10, 1894)

15. Henry Hartley Fowler (March 10, 1894 - June 21, 1895)

16. Lord George Hamilton (July 4, 1895 - October 9, 1903)

17. St John Brodrick (October 9, 1903 - December 4, 1905)

18. John Morley, 1st Viscount Morley (1908) (Dec. 10, 1905 - November 3, 1910)

19. Robert Crewe-Milnes, 1 st Earl of Crewe, 1 st Marquess of Crewe (1911)

(November 3, 1910 - March 7, 1911)

20. John Morley, 1st Viscount Morley (March 7, 1911 - May 25, 1911)

21. Robert Crewe-Milnes, 1st Marquess of Crewe (May 25, 1911 - May 25, 1915)

22. Austen Chamberlain (May 25, 1915 - July 17, 1917)

23. Edwin Samuel Montagu (July 17, 1917 - March 19, 1922)

24. William Peel, 2nd Viscount Peel (March 19, 1922 - January 22, 1924)

25. Sydney Olivier, 1st Baron Olivier (January 22, 1924 - November 3, 1924)

26. Frederick Smith, Earl of Birkenhead (November 6, 1924 - October 18, 1928)

27. William Peel, 2nd Viscount Peel (October 18, 1928 - June 4, 1929)

28. William Wedgwood Benn (June 7, 1929 - August 24, 1931)

29. Sir Samuel Hoare (August 25, 1931 - June 7, 1935)

30. Lawrence Dundas, 2nd Marquess of Zetland (June 7, 1935 - May 28, 1937)

Dr. M. Moiz Khan

Assistant Professor

Dept, of History, University of Karachi
0322-2391591, moiz200@yahoo.com

141

List of Governors-General

Governors-General of the Presidency of Fort William, 1774-1833

1. Warren Hastings, 20 October 1773-1 February 1785

2. Sir John MacPherson, 1 Feb. 1785-12 September 1786, provisional

3. The Earl Cornwallis, 12 Sept. 1786-28 Oct. 1793, first time (from

1792, The Marquess Cornwallis)

4. Sir John Shore, 28 October 1793-March 1798

5. Sir Alured Clarke, March 1798-18 May 1798, provisional

6. The Earl of Mornington, 18 May 1798-30 July 1805 (from 1799, The

Marquess Wellesley)

7. The Marquess Cornwallis, 30 July 1805-5 October 1805, second time

8. Sir George Hilario Barlow, 10 October 1805-31 July 1807, provisional

9. The Lord Minto, 31 July 1807-4 October 1813

10. The Earl of Moira, 4 October 1813-9 January 1823 (from 1817, The

Marquess of Hastings)

11. John Adam, 9 January 1823-1 August 1823, provisional

12. The Lord Amherst, 1 August 1823-13 March 1828 (from 1826, The

Earl Amherst)

13. William Butterworth Bayley, 13 March 1828-4 July 1828, provisional

14. Lord William Bentinck 4 July 1828-1833

Governors-General of India, 1833-1858

Dr. M. Moiz Khan

Assistant Professor

Dept, of History, University of Karachi
0322-2391591, moiz200@yahoo.com

1. Lord William Bentinck 1833-20 March 1835, continued

2. Sir Charles Metcalfe, 20 March 1835-4 March 1836, provisional

3. The Lord Auckland, 4 March 1836-28 February 1842 (from 1839, The Earl

of Auckland)

4. The Lord Ellenborough, 28 February 1842-June 1844

5. William Wilberforce Bird, June 1844-23 July 1844, provisional

6. Sir Henry Hardinge, 23 July 1844-12 January 1848 (from 1846, The Viscount

Hardinge)

7. The Earl of Dalhousie, 12 January 1848-28 February 1856 (from 1849, The
Marquees of Dalhousie)

8. The Viscount Canning, 28 February 1856-1 November 1858

Governors-General and Viceroys of India, 1858-1947

1. The Viscount Canning, 1 November 1858-21 March 1862, continued (from

1859, The Earl Canning)

2. The Earl of Elgin, 21 March 1862-20 November 1863

142

3. Sir Robert Napier, 21 November 1863-2 December 1863, provisional

4. Sir William Denison, 2 December 1863-12 January 1864, provisional

5. Sir John Lawrence, 12 January 1864-12 January 1869

6. The Earl of Mayo, 12 January 1869-8 February 1872

7. Sir John Strachey, 9 February 1872-23 February 1872, provisional

8. The Lord Napier, 24 February 1872-3 May 1872, provisional

9. The Lord Northbrook, 3 May 1872-12 April 1876

10. The Lord Lytton, 12 April 1876-8 June 1880

11. The Marquess of Ripon, 8 June 1880-13 December 1884

12. The Earl of Dufferin, 13 December 1884-10 December 1888

13. The Marquess of Lansdowne, 10 December 1888-11 October 1894

14. The Earl of Elgin, 11 October 1894-6 January 1899

15. The Lord Curzon of Kedleston, 6 January 1899-18 November 1905

16. The Lord Ampthill, 1904, acting for the Lord Curzon of Kedleston

17. The Earl of Minto, 18 November 1905-23 November 1910

18. The Lord Hardinge of Penshurst, 23 November 1910-4 April 1916

19. The Lord Chelmsford, 4 April 1916-2 April 1921

20. The Earl of Reading, 2 April 1921-3 April 1926

21. The Lord Irwin, 3 April 1926-18 April 1931

22. The Earl of Willingdon, 18 April 1931-18 April 1936

23. The Marquess of Linlithgow, 18 April 1936-1 October 1943

24. The Viscount Wavell, 1 October 1943-21 February 1947

25. The Viscount Mountbatten of Burma, 21 February 1947-15 August 1947

Governors-General of India, 1947-1950

1. The Viscount Mountbatten of Burma, 15 August 1947-June 1948, continued

2. Chakravarthi Rajagopalachari, June 1948-25 January 1950

Governors-General of Pakistan, 1947-1958

1. Mohammad Ali Jinnah, 15 August 1947-11 September 1948

2. Khwaja Nazimuddin, 14 September 1948-17 October 1951

3. Ghulam Mohammad, 17 October 1951-6 October 1955

4. Iskander Mirza, 6 October 1955-23 March 1956

Dr. M. Moiz Khan

Assistant Professor

Dept, of History, University of Karachi
0322-2391591, moiz200@yahoo.com

143

Prime Ministers of Pakistan

1) Liaquat Ali Khan

2) Khawaja Nazimuddin

3) Muhammad Ali Bogra

4) Chaudhry Muhammad Ali

5) Huseyn Shaheed Suhrawardy

6) Ibrahim Ismail Chundrigar

7) Sir Feroz Khan Noon

8) Mohammad Ayub Khan

From 1958 until 1973, no person

(August 14, 1947 to October 16, 1951)

(October 17, 1951 - April 17, 1953)

(April 17, 1953 - August 12, 1955)

(August 12, 1955 - September 12, 1956)

(September 12, 1956 - October 17, 1957)

(October 17, 1957 - December 16, 1957)

(December 16, 1957 - October 7, 1958)

(October 7, 1958 - October 28, 1958),(chief martial law
administrator to 24 Oct 1958).
held the title of Prime Minister due to martial law.

9) Nurul Amin (December 7, 1971 - December 20, 1971)

10) Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto (August 14, 1973 - July 5, 1977)

The office was again suspended from July 5, 1977 until March 24, 1985 due to martial law.

11) Mohammad Zia-ul-Haq

12) Muhammad Khan Junejo
(Again) Mohammad Zia-ul-Haq,

13) Benazir Bhutto

14) Ghulam Mustafa Jatoi

15) Nawaz Sharif

16) Balakh Sher Mazari
(Restored) Nawaz Sharif

17) Moin Qureshi
(Again) Benazir Bhutto

18) Miraj Khalid, (interim)
(Again) Nawaz Sharif

(July 5, 1977 - March 24, 1985),(chief martial law
administrator).

(March 24, 1985 - May 29, 1988)

(June 9, 1988 - August 17, 1988)

(Dec 2, 1988 - August 6, 1990)

(August 6, 1990 - November 6, 1990)

(November 6, 1990 - April 18, 1993)

(April 18, 1993 - May 26, 1993)

(May 26, 1993 -July 18, 1993)

(July 18, 1993 - October 19, 1993)

(October 19, 1993 - November 5, 1996)
(November 5, 1996 - February 17, 1997)

(February 17, 1997 - October 12, 1999)

On October 12, 1999, Pervez Musharraf overthrew Nawaz Sharif, and took the title of Chief
Executive. On June 20, 2001, he was made the President of Pakistan.

19) Pervez Musharraf

Elections were held on October 10,

20) Zafarullah Khan Jamali

21) Chaudhry Shujaat Hussain

22) Shaukat Aziz

23) Mian Muhammad Sumru

24) Sayyed Yousuf Raza Gillani

(October 12, 1999 - November 23, 2002) ,(de facto to 14
Oct 1999, from 14 Oct 1999 chief executive)

2002 leading to the return of the position of Prime Minister
(November 21, 2002 - June 26, 2004)

(June 30 2004, August 28 2004
(August 28, 2004- November 16, 2007
(November 16, 2007 - March 25, 2008
(March 25, 2008 - Present

Dr. M. Moiz Khan

Assistant Professor

Dept, of History, University of Karachi

0322-2391591, moiz200@yahoo.com

144

Presidents of Pakistan:

1) Iskander Mirza

2) Muhammad Ayub Khan*

3) Yahya Khan*

4) Zulfikar Ali Bhutto

5) Fazal Ilahi Chaudhry

6) Muhammad Zia ul-Haq*

7) Ghulam Ishaq Khan

8) Wasim Sajjad

9) Farooq Leghari

10) Wasim Sajjad

11) Muhammad Rafiq Tarar

12) Pervez Musharraf*

13) Muhammad Mian Soomro

14) Asif Ali Zardari

(March 23, 1956 to October 27, 1958)
(October 27, 1958 - March 25, 1969)
(March 25, 1969 - December 20, 1971)
(December 20, 1971 - August 13, 1973)
(13-Aug-1973 to September 16, 1978)
(September 16, 1978 - August 17, 1988)
(August 17, 1988 - July 18, 1993)

(July 18, 1993 - November 14, 1993)
(November 14, 1993 - December 2, 1997)
(December 2, 1997 - January 1, 1998)
(January 1, 1998 - June 20, 2001)

(June 20, 2001 - August 18 2008)

(August 18 2008 - September 9, 2008)
(September 9, 2008 - till present)

145

1. http://historypak.com/first-cabinet-l947/

“The first cabinet of Pakistan took oath on 15th August 1947. It included the following
members:

Liaquat Ali Khan Prime Minister, Minister for Foreign Affairs and Defense
I.I. Chundrigar Minister for Commerce, Industries and Works
Sardar Abdur Rab Nishtar Minister for Communications

Raja Ghazanfar Ali Minister for Food, Agriculture and Health (In December he was shifted
to Evacuee and Refugee Rehabilitation).

Jogendra Nath Mandal Minister for Labour and Law Dr. M. Moiz Khan

Assistant Professor

Ghulam Muhammad Minister for Finance Dept, of History, University of Karachi

0322-2391591, moiz200@yahoo.com

Fazlur Rahman Minister for Interior, Information and Education

In December Muhammad Zafrullah Khan was inducted as Minister for Foreign Affairs and
Common wealth relations and Abdus Sattar Pirzada was given the portfolio of Food,
Agriculture and Health. Raja Ghazanfar Ali’s ministry was changed and he was made in charge
of the Ministry of Evacuee and Refugee Rehabilitation.

Quaid-i-Azam also asked for many skilled British technocrats to stay and serve in the Pakistani
government; 3 out of the 4 provincial governors were British. Sir Frederick Bourne was the
Governor of East Benga, Sir Francis Mudie the Governor of West Punjab and Sir George
Cunningham the Governor of N.W.F.P. Sir Ghulam Hussain Hidayatullah, the Governor of
Sindh) was the only local governor, while Balochistan did not have a governor as it was
Governor-General’s province. All chiefs of the armed forces were British as well - General Sir
Frank Messervey chief of the Royal Pakistan Army, Air Vice-Marshal Perry-Keane chief of
the Royal Pakistan Air Force, and Admiral Jefford the chief of Royal Pakistan Navy. The
financial advisor to the Governor-General, Sir Archibald Rowland, was also British.

During the early days after its creation, Pakistan faced a myriad of crisis and difficulties and
the ministers often found themselves helpless to tackle them; so they looked towards Jinnah to
help them with these problems. The first cabinet of Pakistan passed a special resolution to allow
Jinnah to deal with the problems faced by provincial ministers. Jinnah also helped ministers in
policy making. In case of a difference of opinions Quaid’s decision was to be final. All these
rights were given to Jinnah until new constitution came into force.

Quaid had a colossal task ahead of him, during the early days of Pakistan but he remained
committed in his duties and under his dynamic leadership and guidance the nation proved that
it had the determination to succeed. Quaid-i-Azam Jinnah, undoubtedly enjoyed extraordinary
powers but these powers were given to him by the Cabinet to meet the unexpected
circumstances that clearly demanded extraordinary actions.

Even though nation building has proved to be a difficult task for Pakistan, under the guidance
of Jinnah and his competent cabinet members it continued to show its spirit and capacity to
survive and adapt to changing circumstances. James A. Muchener, a visitor to Pakistan in the

146

early years, wrote, “I have never seen so hardworking a government as Pakistan’s. It is literally
licking itself by its own intellectual book-straps”.

List of Governors of Punjab:

• Sir Robert Francis Mu die (1947-1949)

• Sardar Abdur Rab Nishtar (1949-1951)

. Mr 11 Chundrigar (1951-1953)

. Mian Aminuddin, ICS (1953-1954)

• Habib Ibrahim Rahimtoola (June-November 1954)

Name

Took office

Left office

Affiliation

Lt Gen Attiqur Rahman

1 Jull970

23 Dec 1971

Military Administration

Ghulam Mustafa Khar

23 Dec 1971

12 Nov. 1973

Pakistan Peoples Party

Sadiq Hussain Qureshi

12 Nov. 1973

14 Mar 1975

Pakistan Peoples Party

Ghulam Mustafa Khar

14 Mar 1975

31 Jul 1975

Pakistan Peoples Party

Mohammad Abbas Abbasi

31 Jul 1975

5 Jul 1977

Pakistan Peoples Party

Justice Aslam Riaz Hussain

5 Jul 1977

18 Sept 1978

Pakistan Peoples Party

Lt Gen Sawar Khan

18 Sept 1978

1 May 1980

Military Administration

Lt Gen Ghulam Jilani Khan

1 May 1980

30 Dec 1985

Military Administration

Sajjad Hussain Qureshi

30 Dec 1985

9 Dec 1988

Civil Administration

Gen Tikka Khan

9 Dec 1988

6 Aug 1990

Pakistan Peoples Party

Mian Muhammad Azhar

6 Aug 1990

25 Apr 1993

Islami Jamhoori Ittehad

Chaudhary Altaf Hussain

25 Apr 1993

19 Jul 1993

Pakistan Peoples Party

Lt Gen Muhammad Iqbal

19 Jul 1993

26 Mar 1994

Independent

Chaudhary Altaf Hussain

26 Mar 1994

22 May 1995

Pakistan Peoples Party

Justice Muhammad Ilyas

22 May 1995

19 Jun 1995

Acting

Lt Gen Raja Saroop Khan

19 Jun 1995

6 Nov 1996

Pakistan Peoples Party

Justice Khalilur Rehman

6 Nov 1996

11 Nov 1996

Acting

Khawaja Tariq Rahim

11 Nov 1996

11 Mar 1997

Pakistan Peoples Party

Shahid Hamid

11 Mar 1997

18 Aug 1999

Pakistan Muslim League (N)

Lt Gen Muhammad Safdar

25 Oct 1999

29 Oct 2001

Military Administration

Lt Gen Khalid Maqbool

29 Oct 2001

16 May 2008

Military Administration

Chaudhry Muhammad Afzal Sahi

27 Nov 2002

11 Apr 2008

Acting

Salmaan Taseer*

17 May 2008

4 Jan 2011

Pakistan Peoples Party

Rana Muhammad Iqbal

4 Jan 2011

13 Jan 2011

Acting

147

Latif Kliosa

13 Jan 2011

22 Dec 2012 [1]

Pakistan Peoples Party

Makhdoom Syed Ahmed Mahmud

25 Dec 2012

13 May 2013

Pakistan Muslim league (F)

Mohammad Sarwar

2 Aug 2013 [2]

29 January 2015 (3]

Pakistan Muslim League (N)

Malik Muhammad Rafique Raj wana

7 May 2015 [4]

Incumbent

Pakistan Muslim league (N)

List of Governors of Sindh: 50

Dr. Ishrat U1 Ebad Khan

Dec 27, 2002 TO To date

Mr. Mohammadmian Soomro

May 25, 2000 TO Dec 26, 2002

Air Marshal Azim Daud Pota

Oct 25, 1999 TO May 24, 2000

Mr. Mamnoon Hussain

Jun 19, 1999 TO Oct 12, 1999

Lt. Gen.(Retd) Moin-ud-Din Haider, HI
(M)

Mar 17, 1997 TO Jun 17, 1999

Mr. Kamal uddin Azfar

May 22, 1995 TO Mar 16, 1997

Mr. Mahmood A. Haroon

Jan 23, 1994 TO May 21, 1995

Hakim Muhammad Saeed

Jul 19, 1993 TO Jan 23, 1994

Mr. Mahmood A. Haroon

Aug 6, 1990 TO Jul 18, 1993

Justice (Retd) Fakhruddin G. Ebrahim

Apr 19, 1989 TO Aug 6, 1990

Justice (Retd) Qadeeruddin Ahmed

Sep 12, 1988 TO Apr 18, 1989

General (Retd) Rahimuddin, HI (M).Bt

Jun 24, 1988 TO Sep 11, 1988

Mr. Ashraf W. Tabani

Jan 5, 1987 TO Jun 23, 1988

Lt. Gen. Jahan Dad Khan

Apr 7, 1984 TO Jan 4, 1987

Lt. Gen. S.M. Abbasi

Sep 18, 1978 TO Apr 6, 1984

Justice (Retd) Abdul Kadir Shaikh

Jul 6, 1977 TO Sep 17, 1978

Al-Haj Muhammad Dilawar Khanji

Marl, 1976 TO Jul 5, 1977

Begum Raa€™ana Liaquat Ali Khan

Feb 15, 1973 TO Feb 28, 1976

Mir Rasool Bux Talpur

Jun 1, 1972 TO Feb 14, 1973

Mr. Mumtaz Ali Bhutto

Dec 22, 1971 TO Apr 29, 1972

50 http://www.governorsindh.gov.pk/govemors/

148

Lt. Gen. Rakhman Gul

Jul 1, 1970 TO Dec 22, 1971

Nawab Iftikhar Hussain

Jun 24, 1954 TO Oct 14, 1955

Mr. Habib Ibrahim Rahimtoola

Aug 12, 1953 TO Jun 23, 1954

Mr. Goerge Baxandall Constantine

May 2, 1953 TO Aug 11, 1953

Mian Aminuddin C.S.P

Nov 19, 1952 TO May 1, 1953

Shaikh Din Muhammad

Oct 7, 1948 TO Nov 8, 1952

Shaikh G.H. Hidayatullah

Aug 14, 1947 TO Oct 4, 1948

Sir Robert Francis Mudie

Jan 15, 1947 TO Aug 13, 1947

Sir Hugh Dow

Apr 1, 1941 TO Jan 14, 1947

Sir Lancelot Graham

Apr 1, 1936 TO Mar 31, 1941

List of Governors KPK

Name

Took office

Left office

Affiliation

Sir George Cunningham

15 Aug 1947

9 Apr 1948

Indian Civil Service

Sir Ambrose Dundas Flux Dundas

19 Apr 1948

16 Jul 1949

Indian Civil Service

Sahibzada Mohammad Khurshid

16 Jul 1949

14 Jan 1950

Independent

Honourable Justice Khan Bahadur
Muhammad Ibrahim Khan of

Chenna (acting)

14 Jan 1950

17 Feb 1950

Judiciary

Ismail Ibrahim Chundrigar

17 Feb 1950

23 Nov 1951

Muslim League

Khwaja Shahabuddin

24 Nov 1951

17 Nov 1954

Muslim League

Qurban Ali Shah

17 Nov 1954

14 Oct 1955

Independent

Provinces merged to form West Pakistan (14 October 1955 - 1 July 1970)

Lt Gen K.M. Azhar Khan

1 Jul 1970

25 Dec 1971

Military Administration

Hay at Sherpao

25 Dec 1971

30 Apr 1972

Pakistan Peoples Party

Aibab Sikandar Khan

29 Apr 1972

15 Feb 1973

National Awami Party

Aslam Khattak

15 Feb 1973

24 May 1974

National Awami Party

Maj Gen Syed Ghawas

24 May 1974

1 Mar 1976

Pakistan Peoples Party

Maj Gen Naseemllah Babar

1 Mar 1976

6 Jul 1977

Pakistan Peoples Party

Abdul Hakeem Khan

6 Jul 1977

17 Sept 1978

Civil Administration

Lt Gen Fazl-Haq

11 Oct 1978

12 Dec 1985

Military Administration

Nawabzada Abdul Ghafoor Khan Hoti

30 Dec 1985

18 Apr 1986

Jamiat Ulema-e-Islam

Syed Usman Ali Shah

18 Apr 1986

27 Aug 1986

Civil Administration

Fida Mohammad Khan

27 Aug 1986

16 Jun 1988

Pakistan Muslim League
(N)

Bri Gen Amir Gulistan Janjua

16 Jun 1988

19 Jul 1993

Independent

149

Maj Gen Khurshid Ali Khan

19 Jul 1993

5 Nov 1996

Independent

Justice Said Ibne Ali

5 Nov 1996

11 Nov 1996

Independent

Lt Gen Arif Bangash

11 Nov 1996

17 Aug 1999

Independent

Miangul Aurangzeb

18 Aug 1999

21 Oct 1999

Pakistan Muslim League
(N)

Lt Gen Mohammad Shafiq

21 Oct 1999

14 Aug 2000

Military Administration

Lt Gen Iftikhar Hussain Shah

14 Aug 2000

15 Mar 2005

Military Administration

Commander Khalilur Rehman

15 Mar 2005

23 May 2006

Pakistan Muslim League

(Q)

Lt Gen Ali Jan Aurakzai

24 May 2006

7 Jan 2008

Military Administration

Owais Ahmed Ghani

7 Jan 2008

9 Feb 2011

Independent

Syed Masood Kausar

10 Feb 2011

10 Feb 2013

Pakistan Peoples Party 111

Shaukatullah Khan

10 Feb 2013

25 March 2015

Pakistan Peoples Party 121

Mehtab Ahmed Khan Abbasi

15 April 2015

08 February 2016

Pakistan Muslim League
(N)

Iqbal Zafar Jhagra

25 Feb 2016

present

Pakistan Muslim League
(N)

List of Governors Balochistan:

Governor

Term start

Term end

Political affiliation

Lt. General Riaz Hussain

1 July 1970

25 December 1971

military

Nawab Ghous Bakhsh Raisani

29 December 1971

13 April 1972

Independent

Ghaus Bakhsh Bizenjo

29 April 1972

15 February 1973

National Awami Party

Nawab Akbar Khan Bugti

15 February 1973

2 January 1974

Jamhoori Watan Party

Ahmad Yar Khan

2 January 1974

5 July 1977

Independent

Khuda Bakhsh Marti

5 July 1977

18 September 1978

Independent

Rahimuddin Khan

18 September 1978

12 March 1984

Military

F.S. Khan Lodhi

22 March 1984

18 November 1984

Military

Khushdil Khan Afridi

18 November 1984

30 December 1985

Military

Musa Khan

30 December 1985

12 March 1991

Military

Mir Hazar Khan Khoso

12 March 1991

13 July 1991

Independent

Gul Mohammad Khan Jogezai

13 July 1991

19 July 1993

Independent

Sardar Abdur Rahim Durrani

19 July 1993

19 May 1994

Military

Imran Ullah Khan

19 May 1994

8 April 1997

Pakistan People's Party

Mir Abdul Jabbar

10 April 1997

22 April 1997

Independent

Miangul Aurangzeb

22 April 1997

17 August 1999

Pakistan Muslim League
(N)

Sayed Muhammad Fazal Agha

18 August 1999

12 October 1999

Independent

Amir-ul-Mulk Mengal

25 October 1999

29 January 2003

Independent

Abdul Qadir Baloch

1 February 2003

11 August 2003

Military

Owais Ahmed Ghani

11 August 2003

5 January 2008

Independent

150

Justice Amanullah Yaseenzai

5 January 2008

28 February 2008

Independent

Nawab Zulfikar Ali Magsi

28 February 2008

11 June 2013

Pakistan People's Party

Muhammad Khan Achakzai

11 June 2013

Present

Pakhtunkhwa Milli

Aw ami Party

List of Governors of East Bengal.

Tenure

15 August 1947 - 31 March 1950
31 March 1950 -31 March 1953

31 March 1953 - 29 May 1954
29 May 1954 -May 1955

Governor of East Bengal

Sir Frederick Chalmers Bourne
Sir Feroz Khan Noon

Chaudhry Khaliquzzaman
Iskandar Ali Mirza

151

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